Donald H. Gray, PHD, is Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Michigan. In addition to speaking and teaching internationally, he has coauthored three books on subjects related geotechnical engineering and biotechnical slope protection.
Preface | p. xiii |
Introduction to Landform Grading and Revegetation | p. 1 |
Form and Function in Nature | p. 1 |
Human Impact on Landforms | p. 3 |
Historical Development | p. 5 |
Objectives and Challenges | p. 10 |
References | p. 12 |
Surficial Erosion and Mass Wasting of Slopes | p. 13 |
Introduction | p. 13 |
Definitions | p. 13 |
Surficial Erosion | p. 13 |
Mass Wasting | p. 14 |
Salient Characteristics and Differences | p. 14 |
Nature of Surficial Erosion | p. 15 |
Agents and Types of Erosion | p. 15 |
Mechanics of Erosion | p. 16 |
Principal Determinants of Erosion | p. 16 |
Rainfall Erosion | p. 16 |
Wind Erosion | p. 18 |
Types of Water Erosion | p. 18 |
Soil Loss Predictions | p. 21 |
Historical Development | p. 21 |
Applications of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) | p. 22 |
Limitations of USLE | p. 24 |
Erosion Control Principles | p. 25 |
Nature of Mass Wasting | p. 26 |
Types of Slope Movement | p. 26 |
Causes of Slope Failure | p. 27 |
Indicators of Slope Instability | p. 28 |
Slope Stability Predictions | p. 28 |
Approaches to Analysis | p. 28 |
Limit-Equilibrium Analysis | p. 29 |
Shear-Strength Parameters | p. 31 |
Translational Slope Failures | p. 32 |
Control of Mass Wasting | p. 35 |
Slope-Stability and Channel-Erosion Thresholds | p. 36 |
Significance | p. 36 |
Approaches | p. 36 |
Slope-Stability Threshold | p. 36 |
Threshold of Erosion by Saturation Overland Flow | p. 48 |
Stability Fields and Threshold Boundaries | p. 51 |
Summary | p. 52 |
References | p. 54 |
Influence of Vegetation on Hillside Stability | p. 57 |
Introduction | p. 57 |
Influence on Surficial Erosion | p. 58 |
Stabilizing Functions | p. 58 |
Vegetation Cover Factor | p. 58 |
Recommended Vegetation | p. 59 |
Influence on Mass Stability | p. 60 |
Hydromechanical Effects | p. 60 |
Beneficial Effects | p. 60 |
Detrimental Effects | p. 62 |
Root Morphology and Strength | p. 63 |
Introduction | p. 63 |
Depth and Distribution of Root Systems | p. 63 |
Root Strength | p. 67 |
Root and Fiber Soil Reinforcement | p. 69 |
Force-Equilibrium Models | p. 69 |
In Situ Direct-Shear Tests | p. 69 |
Stability Analyses | p. 70 |
Guidelines for Maximizing Benefits of Vegetation | p. 73 |
General Observations | p. 73 |
Selection Strategies | p. 73 |
Placement Strategies | p. 74 |
Grading and Site Preparation | p. 75 |
Optimizing Compaction | p. 78 |
Management Strategies | p. 85 |
Summary | p. 88 |
References | p. 89 |
Influence of Topography on Slope Stability and Hydrology | p. 93 |
Introduction | p. 93 |
Modeling Approaches and Assumptions | p. 94 |
Conceptual Modeling | p. 95 |
General | p. 95 |
Mass Stability | p. 96 |
Surficial Erosion | p. 97 |
Physical-Mathematical Models | p. 98 |
General | p. 98 |
Mass Stability | p. 99 |
Surficial Erosion | p. 102 |
Laboratory and Field Tests | p. 107 |
General | p. 107 |
Mass Stability | p. 107 |
Surficial Erosion | p. 107 |
Equilibrium Profiles of Natural Slopes | p. 110 |
Summary | p. 112 |
Role of Drainage Networks and Drainage Densities | p. 113 |
Drainage Density and Zero-Order Watershed | p. 113 |
References | p. 117 |
Geomorphic Evolution of Slopes | p. 119 |
Introduction | p. 119 |
Role of Geologic Processes | p. 120 |
Geomorphology | p. 121 |
Slope Attributes and Characteristics | p. 121 |
Classification of Slopes | p. 121 |
Slope Profiles and Elements | p. 122 |
Slope Processes | p. 123 |
Approaches to Slope Evolution Prediction | p. 124 |
Traditional approach | p. 124 |
Morphometric approach | p. 125 |
Process approach | p. 125 |
Empirical approach | p. 125 |
Anthropogenic Slopes and Landforms | p. 125 |
Slope Evolution and Long-Term Stability | p. 126 |
Evolution and Morphometry of Spoil Mounds | p. 126 |
Evolution and Morphometry of Natural Slopes | p. 127 |
Effect of Climate on Hillslope Form | p. 132 |
Digital Terrain Models | p. 134 |
Salient Characteristics of Digital Terrain Models | p. 134 |
Example of a Linked, Digital Terrain Model-SIBERIA | p. 136 |
Applications of Digital Terrain Modelling | p. 139 |
Design of Stable Landforms | p. 140 |
References | p. 143 |
Hillside Grading Fundamentals | p. 146 |
Introduction | p. 146 |
Purpose of Grading | p. 146 |
Grading Considerations | p. 147 |
Major Stakeholders | p. 147 |
Selection of Grading Equipment | p. 148 |
Importance of Subsurface Conditions | p. 151 |
Elements of Hillside Grading | p. 153 |
Preparatory Operations | p. 153 |
Clearing and grubbing | p. 153 |
Preapplication of water | p. 153 |
Removal of deleterious materials | p. 154 |
Special Conditions and Precautions | p. 155 |
Groundwater removal | p. 155 |
Surface drainage control | p. 157 |
Unstable slopes and landslides | p. 158 |
Faults | p. 161 |
Volume changes | p. 161 |
Hard, well-indurated rock | p. 162 |
Cuts and Fills | p. 163 |
Cuts and Cut Slopes | p. 166 |
Cut construction | p. 166 |
Selective grading | p. 166 |
Cut slope construction and remediation | p. 166 |
Fills | p. 171 |
Fill slope construction | p. 171 |
Deep fills | p. 171 |
Fill slope remediation | p. 171 |
Erosion Control During Grading | p. 173 |
Economics of Grading | p. 173 |
References | p. 178 |
Principles of Landform Grading | p. 179 |
Introduction | p. 179 |
The Traditional Method | p. 179 |
Conventional Slopes and Their Design Elements | p. 179 |
Slope plan and profile shape | p. 179 |
Drainage devices | p. 179 |
Building Pads | p. 180 |
Landscaping | p. 180 |
Historical Use and Observations | p. 181 |
The Improved Method | p. 184 |
Contour Slopes and Their Design Elements | p. 184 |
Slope plan and profile shape | p. 184 |
Drainage devices | p. 184 |
Building Pads | p. 184 |
Landscaping | p. 185 |
Historical Use and General Observations | p. 185 |
The Environmentally Responsive New Technique | p. 186 |
Landform Slopes and Their Design Elements | p. 186 |
Slope plan and profile shape | p. 186 |
Drainage devices | p. 186 |
Plateaus and Building Pads | p. 188 |
Revegetation Landscaping | p. 189 |
Repair and Rejuvenation Techniques for Either Man-Made or Damaged Natural Landscapes | p. 192 |
General Observations | p. 192 |
Direct Slope Replication | p. 192 |
Complete or Partial In Situ Landform Restoration | p. 193 |
Creation of New Physiographic Landforms | p. 196 |
Slope-Form Restoration via Landform Grading | p. 196 |
Landform Restoration after Mass Grading and Fining | p. 198 |
Surface Mining Reclamation | p. 199 |
Impact of Surface Mining | p. 199 |
Importance of Replicating Original Topography and Hydrology | p. 202 |
Elements of Critical Concern | p. 203 |
Design Alternatives | p. 204 |
The shape of the footprint | p. 204 |
The orientation of the footprint | p. 206 |
Slope profile in cross section | p. 206 |
The slope in frontal and plan view | p. 207 |
Revegetation and reforestation | p. 209 |
Summary and Conclusions | p. 210 |
References | p. 210 |
Essential Design Elements for Slope Forms and Landforms | p. 211 |
Introduction | p. 211 |
Natural Landscape Elements | p. 211 |
Origin of Natural Slope Forms | p. 211 |
Natural Drainage Forms | p. 213 |
Natural Vegetation Patterns | p. 213 |
Basic Slope Forms-"The Architecture of Slopes" | p. 214 |
General Observations | p. 214 |
Ridges and Swales-Perpendicular to the Slope Crest | p. 214 |
Ridges and Swales-Diagonally across the Slope Face | p. 215 |
Ridges and Swales-Curvilinear across the Slope Face | p. 218 |
Elbow Shapes across the Slope Face | p. 218 |
Pyramid- and Cone-Shaped Slope-Face Elements | p. 218 |
Wishbone Configurations | p. 218 |
Convex Ridges and Concave-Foot Slopes | p. 220 |
Compound and Composite Shapes | p. 220 |
Degree of roundness or angularity | p. 222 |
Width | p. 223 |
Height | p. 223 |
Proportion | p. 223 |
The Rock Element as Part of the Natural Landscape | p. 224 |
Reference | p. 224 |
Implementation of the Landform Grading Plan | p. 225 |
Requirements for Successful Implementation | p. 225 |
Obstacles to Implementation | p. 225 |
Implementation Strategies | p. 226 |
Land Planning and Initial Site Design | p. 226 |
Meetings with Regulatory Agency | p. 226 |
Allaying Engineering Concerns | p. 227 |
Geotechnical Engineering | p. 228 |
Introduction of Concept to Grading Designers | p. 228 |
Planning and Surveying Requirements | p. 229 |
Planning Requirements | p. 229 |
Surveying Requirements | p. 229 |
The Grading Phase | p. 231 |
Retraining of Grading Personnel | p. 231 |
Ground Preparation | p. 233 |
Slope Construction | p. 233 |
Fill Construction and Compaction Control | p. 233 |
Construction of Valley or "Daylight" Fills | p. 233 |
Slope-Drainage Devices | p. 234 |
Terrace Drains | p. 234 |
Down-Drains | p. 235 |
Interceptor Drains | p. 236 |
Toe Drains | p. 237 |
Hardened Drain Limitations | p. 237 |
Revegetation | p. 238 |
Conventional Landscaping vs. Revegetation | p. 238 |
Landform Revegetation | p. 238 |
The Application of Water on the Slope Face through Irrigation | p. 241 |
High-Pressure Spray Method | p. 241 |
Low-Pressure Spray Method | p. 241 |
Placement of Rocks and Boulders | p. 241 |
Cost Considerations and Analyses | p. 245 |
Land-Planning Costs | p. 245 |
Design Engineering Costs | p. 245 |
Surveying Costs | p. 245 |
Landscape Architect Costs | p. 247 |
Construction and Grading Costs | p. 247 |
Public and Regulatory Response to Landform Grading | p. 249 |
Introduction | p. 249 |
The Development Process | p. 249 |
Overall Governing Agency or Authority | p. 249 |
The Land-Planner's Perspective | p. 249 |
The Civil Engineer's Perspective | p. 250 |
Regulatory Agencies' Perspectives | p. 250 |
Owners' and Developers' Perspectives | p. 251 |
Interdisciplinary Team Approaches | p. 251 |
Standards and Codes | p. 252 |
Difficulties with Promulgation | p. 252 |
"Prescriptive" vs. "Performance" Standards | p. 253 |
Project-Approval Benefits of Landform Grading | p. 253 |
Agencies that have Adopted or Implemented Landform Grading | p. 254 |
Future Applications of Landform Grading | p. 262 |
References | p. 264 |
Landforming Projects-Watershed Restoration and Mining Reclamation | p. 265 |
Introduction | p. 265 |
School Girl's Glen | p. 265 |
Project Type | p. 265 |
Project Location | p. 266 |
Client and Project Owner | p. 266 |
Site Conditions and Problems | p. 266 |
Repair and Restoration Goals | p. 267 |
Treatment Considerations | p. 267 |
Selected Treatments | p. 269 |
Performance Evaluation | p. 272 |
References | p. 274 |
Asaayi Lake Northwest Drainage-Landform Restoration | p. 274 |
Type of Project | p. 274 |
Location | p. 274 |
Client | p. 275 |
Repair and Restoration Goals | p. 275 |
Site Conditions and Problems | p. 275 |
Treatment Considerations | p. 276 |
Selected Treatment | p. 277 |
Initial design concept | p. 278 |
Final design configuration | p. 279 |
Performance Evaluation | p. 282 |
Postscript | p. 285 |
References | p. 285 |
Oil Sands Mining Reclamation, Syncrude Canada | p. 286 |
Project Type | p. 286 |
Project Location | p. 286 |
Client | p. 286 |
Site History | p. 286 |
Site Conditions and Potential Problems | p. 286 |
Repair and Restoration Goals | p. 290 |
Treatment Considerations | p. 290 |
Selected Demonstrations and Treatments | p. 291 |
Project no. 1-Landform demonstration site no. 1 | p. 291 |
Project no. 2-Reconfiguration of an existing tailings dump through landform grading | p. 294 |
Project no. 3-"Delandform grading" | p. 295 |
Performance Evaluation | p. 297 |
Postscript | p. 298 |
Landforming Projects-Hillside Developments and Mass-Grading Applications | p. 299 |
Introduction | p. 299 |
Hollywood Hills Project | p. 299 |
Type of Project | p. 299 |
Location | p. 299 |
Clients | p. 300 |
Projects History | p. 300 |
Earthwork Disposal and Placement Considerations | p. 301 |
Environmental Mitigation Design Considerations | p. 302 |
Alternative Grading Studies | p. 303 |
Common Design Characteristics of Disposal Fills | p. 303 |
Final Design Configurations and Locations | p. 304 |
Fill F | p. 304 |
Fill B | p. 310 |
Fill C | p. 312 |
Fill A | p. 314 |
Post-Construction Evaluation and Observations | p. 319 |
Anaheim Hills, California | p. 322 |
Type of Project | p. 322 |
Location | p. 323 |
Clients | p. 323 |
Jurisdictional Issues | p. 323 |
Site Conditions and Development Constraints | p. 323 |
Initial Development Plan-Community Objections | p. 324 |
Adopted Plan-Landform Grading Alternative | p. 325 |
Highlights and Features of Landform Grading Plan | p. 325 |
Performance Evaluation | p. 327 |
Talega, California | p. 332 |
Type of Project | p. 332 |
Location | p. 332 |
Client | p. 332 |
Jurisdictional Issues | p. 332 |
Public and Regulatory Agency Responses | p. 333 |
City of San Clemente's response | p. 333 |
The County of Orange's Position | p. 335 |
Final resolution and agreement among stakeholders | p. 335 |
Highlights and Features of Project | p. 336 |
Conclusions | p. 339 |
Operational findings | p. 339 |
Economic considerations | p. 339 |
Appendix | p. 343 |
Index | p. 347 |
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