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A comprehensive guide to the development and application of smart sensing technologies for water quality monitoring
With contributions from a panel of experts on the topic, Sensing Technologies for Real Time Monitoring of Water Quality offers an authoritative resource that explores a complete set of sensing technologies designed to monitor, in real-time, water quality including agriculture. The contributing authors explore the fundamentals of sensing technologies and review the most recent advances of various materials and sensors for water quality??monitoring.
This comprehensive resource includes information on a range of designs of smart electronics, communication systems, packaging, and innovative implementation approaches used for remote monitoring of water quality in various atmospheres. The book explores a variety of techniques for online water quality monitoring including internet of Things (IoT), communication systems, and advanced sensor deployment methods. This important book:
Written for students and practitioners/researchers in water quality management, Sensing Technologies for Real Time Monitoring of Water Quality offers, in one volume, a guide to the real time sensing techniques that can improve water quality and its management.
LIBU MANJAKKAL, PhD, is Research Associate at Electronics and Nanoengineering and Engineering in the School of Engineering at University of Glasgow.
LEANDRO LORENZELLI, PhD, is Head of the Microsystems Research Unit at FBK-Center for Materials and Microsystems (Trento, Italy).
MAGNUS WILLANDER, PhD, is Former Chair Professor in Gothenburg University and Linköping University and Visiting Professor and Scientist in various countries.
About the Editors xiii
List of Contributors xv
Preface xix
Section I Materials and Sensors Development Including Case Study 1
1 Smart Sensors for Monitoring pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Electrical Conductivity, and Temperature in Water 3
Kiranmai Uppuluri
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Water Quality Parameters and Their Importance 4
1.2.1 Impact of pH on Water Quality 4
1.2.2 Impact of Dissolved Oxygen on Water Quality 5
1.2.3 Impact of Electrical Conductivity on Water Quality 5
1.2.4 Impact of Temperature on Water Quality 5
1.3 Water Quality Sensors 6
1.3.1 pH 7
1.3.1.1 pH Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 7
1.3.1.2 Glass Electrode 7
1.3.1.3 Solid- State Ion- Selective Electrodes 8
1.3.1.4 Metal Oxide pH Sensors 8
1.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen 10
1.3.2.1 DO Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 10
1.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors 10
1.3.2.3 Electrochemical Sensors 11
1.3.2.4 Optical or Photochemical Sensors 12
1.3.3 Electrical Conductivity 13
1.3.3.1 Conductivity Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 13
1.3.4 Temperature 15
1.3.4.1 Temperature Sensors: Principles, Materials, and Designs 16
1.3.4.2 Thermocouples 17
1.3.4.3 Resistance Temperature Detector 17
1.3.4.4 Thermistor 17
1.3.4.5 Integrated Circuit 18
1.4 Smart Sensors 18
1.5 Conclusion 18
Acknowledgment 19
References 19
2 Dissolved Heavy Metal Ions Monitoring Sensors for Water Quality Analysis 25
Tarun Narayan, Pierre Lovera, and Alan O’Riordan
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Sources and Effects of Heavy Metals 26
2.3 Detection Techniques 26
2.3.1 Analytical Detection: Conventional Detection Techniques of Heavy Metals 26
2.3.2 Electrochemical Detection Techniques of Heavy Metals 26
2.3.2.1 Nanomaterial- Modified Electrodes 29
2.3.2.2 Metal Nanoparticle- Based Modification 29
2.3.2.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticle- Based Modification 33
2.3.2.4 Carbon Nanomaterials- Based Modification 34
2.3.3 Biomolecules Modification for Heavy Metal Detection 35
2.3.3.1 Antibody- Based Detection 35
2.3.3.2 Nucleic Acid- Based Detection 37
2.3.3.3 Cell- Based Sensor 38
2.4 Future Direction 40
2.5 Conclusions 40
Acknowledgment 41
References 42
3 Ammonia, Nitrate, and Urea Sensors in Aquatic Environments 51
Fabiane Fantinelli Franco
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Detection Techniques for Ammonia, Nitrate, and Urea in Water 53
3.2.1 Spectrophotometry 53
3.2.2 Fluorometry 54
3.2.3 Electrochemical Sensors 54
3.3 Ammonia 59
3.3.1 Ammonia in Aquatic Environments 59
3.3.2 Ammonia Detection Techniques 62
3.4 Nitrate 65
3.4.1 Nitrate in Aquatic Environments 65
3.4.2 Nitrate Detection Techniques 65
3.5 Urea 67
3.5.1 Urea in Aquatic Environment 67
3.5.2 Urea Detection Techniques 69
3.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 71
Acknowledgment 71
References 71
4 Monitoring of Pesticides Presence in Aqueous Environment 77
Yuqing Yang, Pierre Lovera, and Alan O’Riordan
4.1 Introduction: Background on Pesticides 77
4.1.1 Types and Properties 77
4.1.2 Risks 78
4.1.3 Regulation and Legislation 79
4.1.4 Occurrence of Pesticide Exceedance 80
4.2 Current Pesticides Detection Methods 80
4.2.1 Detection of Pesticides Based on Electrochemical Methods 82
4.2.1.1 Brief Overview of Electrochemical Methods 82
4.2.1.2 Detection of Pesticides by Electrochemistry 82
4.2.2 Detection of Pesticides Based on Optical Methods 83
4.2.2.1 Detection of Pesticides Based on Fluorescence 87
4.2.3 Detection of Pesticides Based on Raman Spectroscopy 89
4.2.3.1 Introduction to SERS 89
4.2.3.2 Fabrication of SERS Substrates 91
4.2.3.3 Detection of Pesticide by SERS 92
4.2.3.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 95
4.3 Conclusion 96
Acknowledgment 96
References 96
5 Waterborne Bacteria Detection Based on Electrochemical Transducer 107
Nasrin Razmi, Magnus Willander, and Omer Nur
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Typical Waterborne Pathogens 108
5.3 Traditional Diagnostic Tools 108
5.4 Biosensors for Bacteria Detection in Water 110
5.4.1 Common Bioreceptors for Electrochemical Sensing of Foodborne and Waterborne Pathogenic Bacteria 110
5.4.1.1 Antibodies 111
5.4.1.2 Enzymes 111
5.4.1.3 DNA and Aptamers 111
5.4.1.4 Phages 112
5.4.1.5 Cell and Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 112
5.4.2 Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Sensing of Waterborne Pathogenic Bacteria 112
5.4.2.1 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 113
5.4.2.2 Conducting Polymeric Nanoparticles 114
5.4.2.3 Carbon Nanomaterials 114
5.4.2.4 Silica Nanoparticles 114
5.5 Various Electrochemical Biosensors Available for Pathogenic Bacteria Detection in Water 115
5.5.1 Amperometric Detection 115
5.5.2 Impedimetric Detection 121
5.5.3 Conductometric Detection 123
5.5.4 Potentiometric Detection 124
5.6 Conclusion and Future Prospective 126
Acknowledgment 127
References 127
6 Zinc Oxide- Based Miniature Sensor Networks for Continuous Monitoring of Aqueous pH in Smart Agriculture 139
Akshaya Kumar Aliyana, Aiswarya Baburaj, Naveen Kumar S. K., and Renny Edwin Fernandez
6.1 Introduction 139
6.2 Metal Oxide- Based Sensors and Detection Methods 140
6.3 pH Sensor Fabrication 141
6.3.1 Detection of pH: Materials and Method 141
6.3.2 Detection of pH: Surface Morphology of the Nanostructured ZnO and IDEs 144
6.3.3 Detection of pH: Electrochemical Sensing Performance 145
6.3.4 Detection of Real- Time pH Level in Smart Agriculture: Wireless Sensor Networks and Embedded System 149
6.4 Conclusion 151
Acknowledgment 152
References 152
Section II Readout Electronic and Packaging 161
7 Integration and Packaging for Water Monitoring Systems 163
Muhammad Hassan Malik and Ali Roshanghias
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Advanced Water Quality Monitoring Systems 167
7.2.1 Multi- sensing on a Single Chip 167
7.2.2 Heterogeneous Integration 169
7.2.3 Case Study: MoboSens 169
7.3 Basics of Packaging 171
7.4 Hybrid Flexible Packaging 173
7.4.1 Interconnects 174
7.4.2 Thin Die Embedding 176
7.4.3 Encapsulation and Hermeticity 178
7.4.4 Roll to Roll Assembly 180
7.5 Conclusion 181
References 181
8 A Survey on Transmit and Receive Circuits in Underwater Communication for Sensor Nodes 185
Noushin Ghaderi and Leandro Lorenzelli
8.1 Introduction 185
8.2 Sensor Networks in an Underwater Environment 186
8.2.1 Acoustic Sensor Network 186
8.2.1.1 Energy Sink- Hole Problem 187
8.2.1.2 Acoustic Sensor Design Problems 188
8.2.1.3 The Underwater Transducer 189
8.2.1.4 Amplifier Design 190
8.2.1.5 Analog- to- Digital Converter 194
8.2.2 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves Underwater Sensors 197
8.2.2.1 Antenna Design 198
8.2.2.2 Multipath Propagation 198
8.3 Conclusion 199
Acknowledgment 199
References 200
Section III Sensing Data Assessment and Deployment Including Extreme Environment and Advanced Pollutants 203
9 An Introduction to Microplastics, and Its Sampling Processes and Assessment Techniques 205
Bappa Mitra, Andrea Adami, Ravinder Dahiya, and Leandro Lorenzelli
9.1 Introduction 205
9.1.1 Properties of Microplastics 208
9.1.2 Microplastics in Food Chain 209
9.1.3 Human Consumption of Microplastics and Possible Health Effects 209
9.1.4 Overview 210
9.2 Microplastic Sampling Tools 212
9.2.1 Non- Discrete Sampling Devices 212
9.2.1.1 Nets 212
9.2.1.2 Pump Tools 213
9.2.2 Discrete Sampling Devices 215
9.2.3 Surface Microlayer Sampling Devices 215
9.3 Microplastics Separation 215
9.3.1 Separating Microplastics from Liquid Samples 215
9.3.1.1 Filtration 215
9.3.1.2 Sieving 216
9.3.2 Separating Microplastics from Sediments 218
9.3.2.1 Density Separation 218
9.3.2.2 Elutriation 218
9.3.2.3 Froth Floatation 219
9.4 Microplastic Sample Digestion Process 220
9.4.1 Acidic Digestion 221
9.4.2 Alkaline Digestion 221
9.4.3 Oxidizing Digestion 221
9.4.4 Enzymatic Degradation 222
9.5 Microplastic Identification and Classification 222
9.5.1 Visual Counting 222
9.5.2 Fluorescence 223
9.5.3 Destructive Analysis 223
9.5.3.1 Thermoanalytical Methods 224
9.5.3.2 High- Performance Liquid Chromatography 225
9.5.4 Nondestructive Analysis 225
9.5.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 225
9.5.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy 226
9.6 Conclusions 228
Acknowledgment 229
References 229
10 Advancements in Drone Applications for Water Quality Monitoring and the Need for Multispectral and Multi- Sensor Approaches 235
Joao L. E. Simon, Robert J. W. Brewin, Peter E. Land, and Jamie D. Shutler
10.1 Introduction 235
10.2 Airborne Drones for Environmental Remote Sensing 237
10.3 Drone Multispectral Remote Sensing 239
10.4 Integrating Multiple Complementary Sensor Strategies with a Single Drone 241
10.5 Conclusion 242
Acknowledgment 243
References 243
11 Sensors for Water Quality Assessment in Extreme Environmental Conditions 253
Priyanka Ganguly
11.1 Introduction 253
11.2 Physical Parameters 255
11.2.1 Electrical Conductivity 255
11.2.2 Temperature 258
11.2.3 Pressure 260
11.3 Chemical Parameters 262
11.3.1 pH 262
11.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen and Chemical Oxygen Demand 265
11.3.3 Inorganic Content 268
11.4 Biological Parameters 271
11.5 Sensing in Extreme Water Environments 273
11.6 Discussion and Outlook 276
11.7 Conclusion 278
References 278
Section IV Sensing Data Analysis and Internet of Things with a Case Study 283
12 Toward Real- Time Water Quality Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor Networks 285
Sohail Sarang, Goran M. Stojanović, and Stevan Stankovski
12.1 Introduction 285
12.2 Water Quality Monitoring Systems 286
12.2.1 Laboratory- Based WQM (LB- WQM) 286
12.2.2 Wireless Sensor Networks- Based WQM (WSNs- WQM) 287
12.2.2.1 Solar- Powered Water Quality Monitoring 289
12.2.2.2 Battery- Powered Water Quality Monitoring 291
12.3 The Use of Industry 4.0 Technologies for Real- Time WQM 296
12.4 Conclusion 297
References 298
13 An Internet of Things- Enabled System for Monitoring Multiple Water Quality Parameters 305
Fowzia Akhter, H. R. Siddiquei, Md. E. E. Alahi, and S. C. Mukhopadhyay
13.1 Introduction 305
13.2 Water Quality Parameters and Related Sensors 306
13.3 Design and Fabrication of the Proposed Sensor 310
13.3.1 Sensor’s Working Principle 312
13.4 Experimental Process 312
13.5 Autonomous System Development 313
13.5.1 Algorithm for Data Classification 315
13.6 Experimental Results 318
13.6.1 Sensor Characterization for Temperature, pH, Nitrate, Phosphate, Calcium, and Magnesium Measurement 319
13.6.2 Repeatability 323
13.6.3 Reproducibility 325
13.6.4 Real Sample Measurement and Validation 327
13.6.5 Data Collection 330
13.6.6 Power Consumption 330
13.7 Conclusion 333
Acknowledgment 333
References 333
Index 339
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