Sentencing and Punishment The Quest for Justice

by Easton, Susan; Piper, Christine

• ISBN13: 9780199270873
• ISBN10: 0199270872
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-06-30
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

This book presents an overview of the theory, law and practice of sentencing and punishment from penological, policy and legal perspectives. It provides an accessible account of the changing attitudes as to what constitutes 'just' punishment.

Author Biography

Susan Easton is a reader at the law department at Brunel University. Christine Piper is a reader at the law department at Brunel University and a member of the editorial board of the 'Child and Family Law Quarterly'.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
Acknowledgements	xiii
Glossary	xv
Table of Statutes	xvii
Table of Cases	xxiii
Table of European Legislation	xxvii
Table of International Treaties and Conventions	xxix
PART A Sentencing Principles and Policies
1 New penology and new policies	3	(27)
1.1 Introduction	3	(2)
1.1.1 The scope of the book	3	(1)
1.1.2 What is punishment?	4	(1)
1.2 Understanding penal policy	5	(5)
1.2.1 Key questions	5	(1)
1.2.2 Equality, fairness, and justice	6	(2)
1.2.3 Human rights	8	(2)
1.3 Influences on penal policy	10	(9)
1.3.1 Political imperatives	10	(2)
1.3.2 The costs of punishment: economic influences	12	(3)
1.3.3 Principles from penology and criminology	15	(1)
1.3.4 The New Penology	16	(1)
1.3.5 The influence of public opinion on penal policy	17	(2)
1.4 Penal policy: conflicts and ambiguities	19	(6)
1.4.1 Policy trends in the late twentieth century	19	(2)
1.4.2 Policy documents 2000-2002	21	(3)
1.4.3 The Criminal Justice Act 2003	24	(1)
1.4.4 Current policy criticisms	24	(1)
1.5 The governance of sex offenders: legislation and risk management	25	(3)
1.6 Conclusion	28	(2)
1.6.1 Key themes	28	(1)
1.6.2 Case Study: Damian Cronus	28	(2)
2 Just constraints? Sentencing discretion and retributivist principles	30	(30)
2.1 Introduction	30	(4)
2.1.1 Justice and discretion	30	(1)
2.1.2 Discretion as 'bad'	31	(3)
2.2 'Traditional' constraints	34	(8)
2.2.1 Penalties available to sentencers	34	(1)
2.2.2 Rules governing the use of available sentences	34	(2)
2.2.3 Guidance on 'seriousness', justifiable mitigation, and 'normal range'	36	(2)
2.2.4 Financial and organisational factors	38	(2)
2.2.5 Historical policy trends in structuring sentencing discretion	40	(2)
2.3 New constraints	42	(4)
2.3.1 The policy context	42	(1)
2.3.2 Imposing hurdles	43	(1)
2.3.3 Using mandatory sentences	44	(1)
2.3.4 Criticism: discretion is 'good'	45	(1)
2.4 Imposing sentencing principles	46	(3)
2.4.1 The importance of principle	46	(1)
2.4.2 A presumptive rationale	46	(2)
2.4.3 Classical theories of punishment	48	(1)
2.5 Retributivist rationales	49	(6)
2.5.1 The concept of the individual and the state	49	(2)
2.5.2 Kantian retributivism	51	(2)
2.5.3 Hegel: the 'right' to punish	53	(1)
2.5.4 Punishment as the annulment of crime	54	(1)
2.6 Questions raised by the classical retributivist model	55	(4)
2.6.1 Just punishment or injustice?	55	(1)
2.6.2 Equivalence and proportionality	56	(1)
2.6.3 Calculating seriousness	56	(3)
2.7 Conclusions	59	(1)
2.7.1 Policy issues	59	(1)
2.7.2 Discussion questions	59	(1)
3 'Just deserts': from the Criminal Justice Act 1991 to the Criminal Justice Act 2003	60	(39)
3.1 Modern retributivism	60	(6)
3.1.1 The revival of desert theory	60	(1)
3.1.2 The 'why' of punishment: censure	61	(1)
3.1.3 The 'how' of punishment: respect	62	(1)
3.1.4 The amount of punishment: ordinal proportionality	63	(1)
3.1.5 Cardinal proportionality and reductionist penal policies	64	(1)
3.1.6 Policy implications	65	(1)
3.2 Just deserts	66	(9)
3.2.1 The Criminal Justice Act 1991	66	(3)
3.2.2 Statutory changes	69	(2)
3.2.3 The seriousness thresholds	71	(2)
3.2.4 The Criminal Justice Act 2003	73	(2)
3.3 Calculating gravity	75	(9)
3.3.1 The sentencing process	75	(2)
3.3.2 Aggravating factors in statute	77	(1)
3.3.3 Guidance on aggravation	78	(3)
3.3.4 Mitigating factors	81	(1)
3.3.5 Mitigation relating to the offender	82	(2)
3.4 Policy changes	84	(6)
3.4.1 The reasons for policy change	84	(1)
3.4.2 Persistence as the problem	85	(3)
3.4.3 Critiques of current government policy	88	(2)
3.5 Theoretical critiques of modern retributivism	90	(5)
3.5.1 The limits of just deserts	90	(2)
3.5.2 Radical critiques of retributivism	92	(1)
3.5.3 Modern Marxian critiques	93	(2)
3.6 Conclusions	95	(4)
3.6.1 Rights theory	95	(2)
3.6.2 Case study	97	(2)
4 Utility and deterrence	99	(27)
4.1 A focus on outcome	99	(4)
4.1.1 Policy trends	99	(2)
4.1.2 Deterrence as a sentencing aim	101	(1)
4.1.3 Utilitarianism: good or bad?	102	(1)
4.2 Utilitarian justifications	103	(7)
4.2.1 Classical principles	103	(1)
4.2.2 Bentham's approach	104	(2)
4.2.3 'The Bloody Code' and 'frugality'	106	(2)
4.2.4 Contemporary utilitarianism	108	(1)
4.2.5 Collateral issues	109	(1)
4.3 Deterrence	110	(9)
4.3.1 Key concepts	110	(1)
4.3.2 The certainty of punishment	111	(2)
4.3.3 The severity and celerity of punishment	113	(1)
4.3.4 The type of punishment	113	(1)
4.3.5 The type of offender	114	(1)
4.3.6 Methodological problems in proving deterrence: interpreting the evidence	115	(2)
4.3.7 The death penalty	117	(2)
4.4 Problems with the theory and practice of utilitarianism	119	(4)
4.4.1 Does deterrence work?	119	(1)
4.4.2 Theoretical difficulties	120	(3)
4.4.3 Rights versus utility	123	(1)
4.5 Conclusions	123	(3)
4.5.1 Alternative approaches	123	(1)
4.5.2 Problem scenarios	124	(2)
5 Risk and danger	126	(28)
5.1 Managing criminality	126	(6)
5.1.1 A culture of control	126	(2)
5.1.2 Notions of risk	128	(3)
5.1.3 The dangerous offender	131	(1)
5.2 Incapacitation and public protection	132	(4)
5.2.1 Assessing the utilitarian justification	132	(2)
5.2.2 Selective and catagorial incapacitation	134	(1)
5.2.3 Mass imprisonment in the USA	135	(1)
5.3 Sentencing on risk of harm	136	(9)
5.3.1 The history of protective sentencing	136	(1)
5.3.2 Longer than commensurate sentences	137	(3)
5.3.3 Mandatory (minimum) sentences	140	(1)
5.3.4 Discretionary life sentences	141	(1)
5.3.5 Mentally disordered and dangerous offenders	142	(3)
5.4 Current policy	145	(7)
5.4.1 The Criminal Justice Act 2003	145	(2)
5.4.2 Early release	147	(5)
5.5 Conclusions	152	(2)
5.5.1 Critique of current policy	152	(1)
5.5.2 Case study	153	(1)
6 Making amends	154	(33)
6.1 Towards a restorative justice policy	154	(8)
6.1.1 A different focus	154	(1)
6.1.2 Restorative justice	155	(4)
6.1.3 Current policy in the UK	159	(3)
6.2 Confiscation and compensation	162	(9)
6.2.1 The historical context: 'traditional' remedies for loss and harm	162	(1)
6.2.2 New influences on policy	163	(3)
6.2.3 The 'fruits of crime': restitution, forfeiture, and confiscation	166	(2)
6.2.4 Compensation to the victim	168	(3)
6.3 New forms of reparation	171	(9)
6.3.1 Mediation and reparation in the 1980's	171	(3)
6.3.2 Restorative justice for young offenders	174	(4)
6.3.3 Criminal Justice Act 2003	178	(2)
6.4 Victim involvement and victims' rights	180	(3)
6.4.1 What role for victims?	180	(1)
6.4.2 The Victim Personal Statement Scheme (VPSS)	181	(1)
6.4.3 The role of the Probation Service	182	(1)
6.5 Tensions in policy, theory, and practice	183	(4)
6.5.1 Critiques	183	(3)
6.5.2 Discussion exercises	186	(1)
7 Dealing with minors: continuity and change	187	(28)
7.1 Introduction	187	(7)
7.1.1 A separate system	187	(2)
7.1.2 Offending by minors	189	(2)
7.1.3 Sentencing powers	191	(3)
7.2 Welfare v justice	194	(6)
7.2.1 A theoretical framework	194	(2)
7.2.2 Diverging policies in the UK	196	(2)
7.2.3 'Bifurcation' and diversion: 1970-90	198	(2)
7.3 Cautioning in a changing climate	200	(5)
7.3.1 'Systemic' management	200	(2)
7.3.2 Prosecution and diversion in the 1990's	202	(1)
7.3.3 New factors	203	(2)
7.4 The 'new' youth justice system	205	(4)
7.4.1 No more excuses	205	(1)
7.4.2 A national system	206	(1)
7.4.3 Reprimands and warnings	207	(2)
7.5 Conclusions	209	(6)
7.5.1 The end of 'welfare v justice'?	209	(1)
7.5.2 Stability and continuity	210	(2)
7.5.3 Discussion questions	212	(3)
PART B Punishing Offenders
8 Fair impact?	215	(27)
8.1 Disproportionate punishment?	215	(9)
8.1.1 Introduction	215	(3)
8.1.2 Social and economic factors	218	(3)
8.1.3 Impact as mitigation in practice	221	(3)
8.2 Equality of impact: a focus on fines	224	(7)
8.2.1 Fines as punishment	224	(2)
8.2.2 Units of financial deprivation	226	(2)
8.2.3 Default and enforcement	228	(2)
8.2.4 Fixed and regulatory penalties	230	(1)
8.3 The treatment of mentally disordered offenders	231	(4)
8.3.1 Sentencing policy	231	(1)
8.3.2 Treatment under the Mental Health Act 1983	232	(1)
8.3.3 Penal disposals	233	(2)
8.4 Socio-economic differentials: a focus on race	235	(5)
8.4.1 Ethnic minorities and the Criminal Justice System	235	(1)
8.4.2 Racism as ideology and practice	236	(2)
8.4.3 Research difficulties	238	(1)
8.4.4 Racism and social deprivation	239	(1)
8.5 Review	240	(2)
8.5.1 Conclusions	240	(1)
8.5.2 Case study	240	(2)
9 Punishing youth	242	(27)
9.1 Discipline and responsibility	242	(6)
9.1.1 Constructions of childhood and adolescence	242	(1)
9.1.2 'Re-moralisation'	243	(2)
9.1.3 Civil orders	245	(3)
9.2 Community programmes	248	(7)
9.2.1 Assessment and information	248	(3)
9.2.2 Referral orders	251	(2)
9.2.3 Community orders	253	(2)
9.3 Detention	255	(8)
9.3.1 New statutory provisions	255	(1)
9.3.2 Murder and serious crimes	256	(3)
9.3.3 Conditions in detention	259	(4)
9.4 The role of rights for young offenders	263	(6)
9.4.1 The utility of rights conventions	263	(2)
9.4.2 Youth justice as experiment?	265	(1)
9.4.3 A deferred conclusion?	266	(1)
9.4.4 Case study	267	(2)
10 Just Punishment in the community	269	(27)
10.1 Introduction	269	(6)
10.1.1 Custodial penalties	269	(2)
10.1.2 Community penalties: 'alternatives to custody'	271	(1)
10.1.3 Why 'community'?	272	(3)
10.2 The legal framework	275	(5)
10.2.1 Seriousness and liberty	275	(2)
10.2.2 Choosing the community punishment	277	(1)
10.2.3 Enforcement	278	(1)
10.2.4 Release on licence	279	(1)
10.3 The development of probation practice	280	(5)
10.3.1 The history of the Probation Service until the 1970's	280	(1)
10.3.2 Changing the Probation Service	281	(1)
10.3.3 Penal managers in the 1990's?	282	(1)
10.3.4 A National Probation Service	283	(2)
10.4 Rehabilitation: old and new	285	(6)
10.4.1 Introduction	285	(1)
10.4.2 Does rehabilitation 'work'?	286	(3)
10.4.3 The critique of rehabilitation: the demand for justice	289	(1)
10.4.4 The New Rehabilitationism	290	(1)
10.5 Conclusions	291	(5)
10.5.1 The survival of rehabilitation	291	(1)
10.5.2 Rehabilitation or risk control?	292	(2)
10.5.3 Justice in community punishment	294	(1)
10.5.4 Discussion questions	295	(1)
11 Justice in the modern prison	296	(38)
11.1 Introduction	296	(3)
11.1.1 Justice behind prison doors	296	(1)
11.1.2 Aims and performance indicators	297	(1)
11.1.3 The impact of managerialism	298	(1)
11.2 The prison population	299	(8)
11.2.1 The typical prisoner	299	(3)
11.2.2 Prison expansion	302	(3)
11.2.3 The prison estate	305	(1)
11.2.4 The categorisation and allocation of prisoners	306	(1)
11.3 Prison conditions	307	(6)
11.3.1 Overview	308	(1)
11.3.2 Overcrowding	308	(2)
11.3.3 Work and training	310	(2)
11.3.4 Education	312	(1)
11.4 Prison disorder	313	(8)
11.4.1 Prison unrest	313	(2)
11.4.2 The Woolf Report	315	(1)
11.4.3 The Woolf recommendations	316	(2)
11.4.4 The impact of the Woolf Report	318	(3)
11.5 Prison privatisation	321	(5)
11.5.1 The privatisation debate: arguments for and against privatisation	321	(2)
11.5.2 The experience of privatisation	323	(3)
11.6 Human rights and imprisonment	326	(5)
11.6.1 Rights, fairness, and justice	326	(1)
11.6.2 Rights Conventions	327	(1)
11.6.3 The Human Rights Act 1998	328	(3)
11.7 Expansionist versus reductionist penal policies	331	(2)
11.8 Conclusion	333	(1)
11.8.1 Discussion Questions	333	(1)
12 The custodial experience: equality and difference	334	(39)
12.1 Differential treatment	334	(5)
12.1.1 Introduction	334	(2)
12.1.2 Equality versus difference	336	(2)
12.1.3 The merits and problems of a difference-based approach: empowerment in the context of coercion	338	(1)
12.2 Gender and justice	339	(3)
12.2.1 Gender and sentencing	339	(1)
12.2.2 The rise in the female prison population	340	(2)
12.3 Life in women's prisons	342	(3)
12.3.1 The typical woman prisoner	343	(1)
12.3.2 The women's prison estate	344	(1)
12.3.2 Women prisoners and male penal policies	344	(1)
12.4 Women prisoners and the pains of imprisonment	345	(7)
12.4.1 Women as carers	345	(2)
12.4.2 Privacy and prison conditions	347	(1)
12.4.3 Expectations of women prisoners' behaviour	347	(1)
12.4.4 Women prisoners' health needs	348	(1)
12.4.5 Constructive regimes for women	349	(1)
12.4.6 Black women prisoners	350	(1)
12.4.7 Women's relative advantages in the prison regime	351	(1)
12.5 Gender-specific penal reform and ameliorative justice	352	(5)
12.5.1 Changing the women's prison regime	353	(1)
12.5.2 Reducing the number of women in prison	354	(1)
12.5.3 The government's policy on women offenders	355	(2)
12.6 Black and and ethnic minority prisoners	357	(2)
12.7 The experience of imprisonment	359	(7)
12.7.1 Work, training, and discipline	360	(1)
12.7.2 Racial harassment	361	(2)
12.7.3 Deaths in custody	363	(1)
12.7.4 Foreign national prisoners	363	(3)
12.8 Race relations policies in the prison service	366	(3)
12.9 Anti-discrimination law and the treatment of prisoners	369	(2)
12.9.1 Domestic law	369	(1)
12.9.2 European Convention and European Union Law	370	(1)
12.10 Challenging racism	371	(1)
12.11 Conclusion	372	(1)
12.11.1 Discussion Questions	372	(1)
Concluding comments	373	(6)
Bibliography	379	(26)
Index	405