D. Stanley Eitzen was Professor Emeritus of Sociology at Colorado State University.

George H. Sage was Professor Emeritus of Sociology and Kinesiology at University of Northern Colorado.

Becky Beal is Professor of Kinesiology at California State University-East Bay.

Matthew Atencio is Professor of Kinesiology at California State University-East Bay and Co-Director of the Center for Sport and Social Justice.

CONTENTS

Preface
Part I TOWARD AN UNDERSTANDING OF SPORT

1 The Sociological Analysis of Sport in American Society
An Overview of Sociology of Sport as a Field of Study
The Pervasiveness of Sport
The Discipline of Sociology
Assumptions of the Sociological Perspective
Thinking as a Sociologist: Sociological Imagination
Units of Sociological Analysis
The Micro Level
The Macro Level
Micro and Macro Levels and This Book
Sociological Theories: Contrasting Ways to See and Understand Social Life
Functionalism
Conflict Theory
Conflict/Cultural Social Theories
Sociological Theories and Sociology of Sport: Our Position
Key Topics in the Study of Sport and Society
Summary
Notes

2 Social and Cultural Transformations and the Rise of Sport in the United States
Pre-Columbian and Colonial Traditions in the United States
The Colonists Restrict Physical Activities
Early Nineteenth Century: Takeoff of Industrialization, Technology, and Organized Sport
Building a Framework for Organized Sport
The Technological Revolution and Sport
Latter Nineteenth Century: The Beginnings of Modern Sport
Urbanization and the Rise of Modern Sport Forms
Technological Innovation and Sport: Transportation
Technological Innovation and Sport: Communication
Technological Innovation and Equipment to Play Modern Sports
Other Technological Breakthroughs and Sport
The Cult of Manliness and Sport
Muscular Christianity and Intellectuals
Social Philosophy and Organized Sport
Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries: The Modern World and Sport
The Maturing of Modern Sport
Twentieth-Century Technology and Sport: Transportation
The Technological Revolution and Sport: Communication
Other Technological Innovations and Sport
Sport in Education
Summary
Notes

3 Sport and American Culture and Values
Culture, Values, and Social Theories
Sport as a Microcosm of Cultural Values
The American Value System
Individual Striving for Success and Competition in Sport
The Socially Valued Means to Achieve in Sport
Progress Overcomes the Status Quo in Sport
Materialism: Acquisitions and Consumption in Sport
Social Conformity in Sport
American Values; Sport, Character, and Athletic Bodies
American Values: Sport and Technology
Summary
Notes

4 Social Problems and U.S. Sport: Violence,Substance Abuse, and Mental Health
Overview of Social Problems in U.S. Sport
Social Theories and Social Problems
Eamples of Recent Social Problems in Sport
Violence in American Society
Violence in Historical Contet
Contemporary Violence in the United States
Violence in Sport: Terminology, Theories
Is It Violence or Aggression Confusion in the Literature
Theories About the Connection Between Aggressive Behavior and Sport
Aggression Theories and Research on Sports
Violence in Sport
Violence as Part of U.S. Sports
Fostering and Supporting Player Violence
Violent Behavior of Coaches and Administration
Violent Behavior of Athletes in Their Personal Lives
Sources for Violence by Male Athletes in Their Private Lives
Athletes' Violence Against Teammates: Hazing
Sports Fans: Violent and Abusive Actions
Factors Associated with Fan Violence
Game and Postgame Violence
Reducing Fan Violence and Abusive Behavior
Substance Abuse and Sport
Substance Abuse Not New to Sports
The Scope of Current Substance Abuse in Sport
Anabolic Steroids: Promises Big and Strong
Social/Cultural Influences and Substance Abuse Among Athletes
Can Substance Abuse in Sports Be Reduced, Even Prevented
Sport and Mental Health Issues
Summary
Notes

Part II SPORT AND STRUCTURED INEQUALITY IN SOCIETY

5 Sport, Social Stratification, and Social Mobility
Terminology and Theory in Social Stratification and Mobility
Basic Terminology in Social Stratification
Dimensions of Inequality
Social Class and Sport
Adult Participation Preferences for Sports by Socioeconomic Status
Youth Sport Participation by Socioeconomic Status
Spectator Preferences for Sports by Socioeconomic Status
Segregation in Sports by Social Class
Social Mobility and the United States and Canada
Sport as a Mobility Escalator
Demytholoizing the Social Mobility-Through-Sport Hypothesis
Summary
Notes

6 Racial-Ethnic Minorities and Sport
Racial-Ethnic Minorities: Social Theories and Relevant Concepts
Social Theories and Race and Minorities
Relevant Concepts About Race
Sports Participation Among Racial-Ethnic Minorities
The History of African American Involvement in U.S. Sport
Latino/a Involvement in U.S. Sport
Asian American Involvement in U.S. Sport
Native American Involvement in Sport
The Effects of Globalization on Ethnic Diversity in American Sport
African American Dominance in Sport
Race-Linked Physical Differences
Race-Linked Cultural Differences
Social Structure Constraints
Racial Discrimination in Sport
Stacking
Leadership, Administration, and Authority
Summary
Notes

7 Gender in U.S. Sport: Continuity and Change
Social Theories and Gender Relations
Constructing and Reproducing Gender Relations Through Sport
The Heritage of Gender Inequality in Sport
Social Sources of Gender Inequality in Sport
Parental Childrearing Practices and Gender Construction
The School and Gender Construction
The Mass Media and Gender Construction
Nicknames, Mascots, and Heroines
Females Surmount Social Barriers to Participation in Sport
Negative Myths
Women's Struggle for Opportunity and Equality in Sport
From Boys-Only Youth Sports to Opportunities for Both Sees
Title I: Federal Government Support for Gender Equity
Toward Gender Equity in High School Sports
Gender Equity in Intercollegiate Sports
Men Rule in the Coaching and Administration of Women's Sports
High School and College Women's Coaching Positions
High School and College Administrative/Management Positions
Ownership, Management, and Coaching in Professional and Olympic Sports
Coaching and Administration/Management in U.S. Olympic Organizations
Reasons for the Persistence of Men in Coaching and Administering Women's Sports
Women Athletes' Careers at the Professional and Olympic Levels of Sport
Female Olympic Athletes
Gender Equality in Sport
Sport, Gender Identity, and Seual Orientation
Summary
Notes

Part III FROM ORGANIZED SPORT TO CORPORATE SPORT: YOUTH TO COLLEGE SPORT

8 Youth and Sport
Youth Sports Programs: Something for Everyone
Social Theories and Youth Sports
The Rise of Youth Sports Programs: The Takeoff and Epansion of a New Form of Sport
Objectives of Youth Sports Programs
What Do Young Athletes, Their Parents, and Coaches Want from Sports
Socialization and Sport: Involvement in Sport and Its Consequences
Socialization into Sport: Why Do Children Become Involved in Organized Sports
Families
Parents
Siblings
Peers
Coaches
Schools
Mass Media
Participants: Youth Athletes
Socialization via Sport: Process and Outcomes
Two Forms of Play: Peer Group and Adult Organized
Development of Personal-Social Attributes Through Sport
Youth Orientation Toward Sport
Sportsmanship in Youth Sports
Character Development in Youth Sports
Potential Psychosocial Problems in Youth Sports
Adult Intrusion in Youth Sports
Disruption of Education
Risk of Injury
The "Winning Is the Only-Thing" Ethic and Youth Sports
Emphasizing Personal Growth and Self-Actualization
Lifestyle and Action Sports
Youth Sports Coaches
Bill of Rights for Young Athletes
Youth Sport and the COVID-19 Pandemic
Summary
Notes

9 Interscholastic Sports
Social Theories and Interscholastic Sports
The Status of Sport in Secondary Schools
The Consequences of Sport for Schools, Communities, and Individuals
The Consequences of Sport for the High School
The Consequences of Sport for the Community
The Consequences of Sport for Participants
Problems, Dilemmas, and Controversies
The Subversion of Educational Goals
Reproduction of Social Class and White Privilege
The Reinforcement of Gender Inequities
Cheating
Unsportsmanlike Behavior of Fans
Autocratic Coaches
Ecessive Pressures to Win
Elitism
Sport Specialization
Economic Class Divisions and Budget Shortfalls
Corporate High School Sport Programs
Efforts to Reform High School Sports
Summary
Notes

10 Intercollegiate Sport
Beginning and Development of College Sports
Student-Centered College Sport Remains
College Sport as Big Business
Social Theories and Their Role in Colleges and Universities
Functionalism and Big-Time College Sports
Conflict/Culturalism and Big-Time College Sports
Beliefs and Reality About Big-Time Sport Functions
Further Consequences of the Commercial Orientation of Big-Time College Sports
A Contradiction: Athletes as Amateurs in a Big-Business Environment
The NCAA and Student-Athletes
The Enforcement of "Amateurism"
Pressure to Shift the Legal Parameters of Amateurism in Collegiate Sport
The Restriction of Athletes' Rights
Educational Performance and Student-Athletes
Academic Predictions for Student-Athletes at College
Academic Achievement and College Athletes
Graduation Rates and Student-Athletes
The Impediments to Scholarly Achievement by College Athletes
Reform Initiatives and Intercollegiate Sports
The Administration of Intercollegiate Sports
Emphasizing the Education of Student-Athletes
Commitment to Athletes' Rights
Summary
Notes

Part IV SPORT AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

11 Sport and the Economy
Professional Sport as a Business
Social Theories and the Economy
Professional Team Sports as Monopolies
Public Subsidization of Professional Team Franchises
Ownership for Profit
A Radical Question: Are Owners Necessary
Who Benefits Economically from Sports
Professional Athletes' Earnings
Auiliary Professions and Occupations in Sport
Sport-Related Businesses
Corporate Advertising in Sport
The Relationship Between Owners and Athletes
The Draft and the Reserve Clause
Professional Team Sport Athletes Fight for Free Agency
Amateur Sport as a Business
The Ambiguous Case: Intercollegiate Sports and Amateurism
The Economics of Collegiate Sport
Gambling and Sport
Issues About Sports Betting in the United States
Sports Gambling and College Students
Summary
Notes

12 Sport and the Mass Media
Social Roles of the Mass Media
Prominent and Subtle Roles of the Media
Mass Media and Social Theories
The Symbiosis of Mass Media and Sport
Enduring Linkages Between the Mass Media and Sport
Television: The Monster of the Sports World
Increasing TV Sports Coverage
Economic Aspects of Televised Sports
Television's Influence on Sport
Increases in Sport Revenue
Television Drives Shifts in Popularity of Sports
Professional Sports Franchise Locations and the Media
Television: The Financial Foundation for Big-Time Intercollegiate Sport
Television Taps High School Sports
Modifying Sports to Accommodate TV
Television's Own Sports
Televised Sport as a Socially Mediated Event
The Impact of Sport on the Mass Media
Increased Sport in the Media
Sport's Privileged Treatment by the Media
Sports Consumers and the Mass Media
The Internet: An Essential Form of Mass Communications for Sports
Integration of the Internet, Television, Computers, and Video Games
Social Media: Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and Twitter
Media Sport: Gender , Race, and Disabilities Issues
Reproduction of Hegemonic Masculinity in Media Sport
Media Sport and Gender Inequities
Media Sport and Racial and Ethnic Inequities
Media Sport and Disabilities Inequities
Sports Journalism and the Mass Media
Sportscasters: Narrators of Mediated Sport
Minority Sport Journalists and Broadcasters
Women Sport Journalists and Broadcasters
Summary
Notes

13 Sport and Politics
Politics as a Social Institution
Social Theories and Politics
Intertwining of Politics and Sports
The Political Uses of Sport
Sport as a Vehicle for Propaganda
Sport and Nationalism
Sport as an Opiate of the Masses
The Eploitation of Sport by Politicians
Sport as a Vehicle of Change in Society
Internationalization of Social Activism and Sport
Globalization and Sport
The Political Olympic Games
Political Problems and the Olympic Movement
Proposals for Reforming the Olympic Games
Summary
Notes

14 Sport and Religion
The Relationship Between Religion and Society
Personal and Social Roles of Religion
Historical Affiliation Between Religion and Sport
Ancient Greece: Creators of Organized Sports Events
The Early Christian Church and Roman Sport Spectacles
Pre-Columbian Societies: Sport in the Americas
Reformation and Protestantism in the North American Colonies
Religious Objections to Sport Declined in the Nineteenth Century
Religion and Sport Conciliation
Sport as Religion
Similarities Between Sport and Religion
Critical Views About Sport as Religion
Religion Uses Sport
Churches
Religious Leaders Embrace Sport
Church Colleges and Universities
Religious Organizations and Sports
The Fellowship of Christian Athletes
Religion and Professional Sports Organizations
Sport and Religion Publications
Missionary Work of Churches and Sport
Religious Evangelizing by Athletes and Coaches
The Promise Keepers: Patriarchy, Gender, and Seuality
Sportianity Confronting Social Issues
Value Orientations of Religion and Sport
The Protestant Ethic and Sports
Protestantism and Contemporary Sport
Sport Uses Religion
The Use of Prayer and Divine Intervention
The Use of Magic
Magic and Its Uses in Sports
Summary
Notes

Part V SPORT, FUTURE TRENDS, AND SUSTAINABILITY

15 Future Trends: The Sustainability of Sport in the United States
Key Social Factors that Drive Social Change
The Economy, Technology, and Labor: The Information Society
An Information Society
Information Society and Fletime: Hopes and Realities of Increased Leisure
Technology
Demographic Shifts: Diverse and Aging Populations and Location
Population Composition
Locations
Future Trends and Sports
Professional Sports
Esports and Video Games
Future of Mediated sport: Television and the Internet
Adventure and Lifestyle Sports
Sports immersed in Outdoor/Nature Spaces
Action and Lifestyle Sports
Trends in Sustainability: Social Values and Future Sport
Organizational Trends in Sport Neoliberalism
Sport For Development and Peace Programs
Youth and High School sports
Intercollegiate Sports
Professional Teams and Leagues
Inclusion Trends in Sport
People with Disabilities
Older Adults
LGBTQ
Environmental Sustainability in Future Sports
Summary
Notes
Index

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