Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes

by Duffie, John A.; Beckman, William A.

• ISBN13: 9780471698678
• ISBN10: 0471698679
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-08-25
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

This Third Edition of the acknowledged leading book on solar engineering presents the basics of solar energy and how energy is obtained from the sun. It goes on to cover the types of technologies used to harvest this solar energy, store it, and deliver it as needed. Finally it explores the various applications of these technologies and how they can be used in various market sectors.

Author Biography

John A. Duffie (deceased) was Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering and past Director of the Solar Energy Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

William A. Beckman is the Ouweneel-Bascom Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering and Director of the Solar Energy Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
Preface to the Second Edition	xiii
Preface to the First Edition	xvii
PART I FUNDAMENTALS	1	(480)
Solar Radiation	3	(40)
The Sun	3	(2)
The Solar Constant	5	(1)
Spectral Distribution of Extraterrestrial Radiation	6	(1)
Variation of Extraterrestrial Radiation	7	(3)
Definitions	10	(2)
Direction of Beam Radiation	12	(8)
Angles for Tracking Surfaces	20	(3)
Ratio of Beam Radiation on Tilted Surface to That on Horizontal Surface	23	(6)
Shading	29	(8)
Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface	37	(4)
Summary	41	(2)
References	41	(2)
Available Solar Radiation	43	(96)
Definitions	43	(1)
Pyrheliometers and Pyrheliometric Scales	44	(4)
Pyranometers	48	(5)
Measurement of Duration of Sunshine	53	(1)
Solar Radiation Data	54	(6)
Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation	60	(4)
Estimation of Average Solar Radiation	64	(4)
Estimation of Clear-Sky Radiation	68	(4)
Distribution of Clear and Cloudy Days and Hours	72	(3)
Beam and Diffuse Components of Hourly Radiation	75	(2)
Beam and Diffuse Components of Daily Radiation	77	(2)
Beam and Diffuse Components of Monthly Radiation	79	(2)
Estimation of Hourly Radiation from Daily Data	81	(4)
Radiation on Sloped Surfaces	85	(5)
Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: Isotropic Sky	90	(1)
Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: Anisotropic Sky	91	(6)
Radiation Augmentation	97	(4)
Beam Radiation on Moving Surfaces	101	(2)
Average Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: Isotropic Sky	103	(2)
Average Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: KT Method	105	(8)
Effects of Receiving Surface Orientation on HT	113	(3)
Utilizability	116	(3)
Generalized Utilizability	119	(8)
Daily Utilizability	127	(6)
Summary	133	(6)
References	134	(5)
Selected Heat Transfer Topics	139	(35)
Electromagnetic Spectrum	139	(1)
Photon Radiation	140	(1)
The Blackbody: Perfect Absorber and Emitter	140	(1)
Planck's Law and Wien's Displacement Law	141	(1)
Stefan-Boltzmann Equation	142	(1)
Radiation Tables	143	(2)
Radiation Intensity and Flux	145	(2)
Infrared Radiation Exchange between Gray Surfaces	147	(1)
Sky Radiation	148	(1)
Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient	149	(1)
Natural Convection Between Flat Parallel Plates and between Concentric Cylinders	150	(5)
Convection Suppression	155	(4)
Vee-Corrugated Enclosures	159	(1)
Heat Transfer Relations for Internal Flow	159	(5)
Wind Convection Coefficients	164	(2)
Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Packed Beds and Perforated Plates	166	(3)
Effectiveness-NTU Calculations for Heat Exchangers	169	(5)
References	171	(3)
Radiation Characteristics of Opaque Materials	174	(30)
Absorptance and Emittance	175	(2)
Kirchhoff's Law	177	(1)
Reflectance of Surfaces	178	(4)
Relationships among Absorptance, Emittance, and Reflectance	182	(1)
Broadband Emittance and Absorptance	183	(1)
Calculation of Emittance and Absorptance	184	(3)
Measurement of Surface Radiation Properties	187	(2)
Selective Surfaces	189	(4)
Mechanisms of Selectivity	193	(4)
Optimum Properties	197	(1)
Angular Dependence of Solar Absorptance	197	(1)
Absorptance of Cavity Receivers	198	(1)
Specularly Reflecting Surfaces	199	(5)
References	201	(3)
Radiation Transmission through Glazing: Absorbed Radiation	204	(34)
Reflection of Radiation	204	(4)
Absorption by Glazing	208	(1)
Optical Properties of Cover Systems	208	(5)
Transmittance for Diffuse Radiation	213	(2)
Transmittance-Absorptance Product	215	(1)
Angular Dependence of (τα)	216	(1)
Spectral Dependence of Transmittance	216	(3)
Effects of Surface Layers on Transmittance	219	(2)
Absorbed Solar Radiation	221	(3)
Monthly Average Absorbed Radiation	224	(7)
Absorptance of Rooms	231	(1)
Absorptance of Photovoltaic Cells	232	(4)
Summary	236	(2)
References	236	(2)
Flat-Plate Collectors	238	(86)
Description of Flat-Plate Collectors	238	(1)
Basic Flat-Plate Energy Balance Equation	239	(1)
Temperature Distributions in Flat-Plate Collectors	240	(2)
Collector Overall Heat Loss Coefficient	242	(14)
Temperature Distribution between Tubes and the Collector Efficiency Factor	256	(6)
Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction	262	(2)
Collector Heat Removal Factor and Flow Factor	264	(4)
Critical Radiation Level	268	(1)
Mean Fluid and Plate Temperatures	269	(1)
Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product	270	(3)
Effects of Dust and Shading	273	(1)
Heat Capacity Effects in Flat-Plate Collectors	274	(3)
Liquid Heater Plate Geometries	277	(5)
Air Heaters	282	(7)
Measurements of Collector Performance	289	(1)
Collector Characterizations	290	(1)
Collector Tests: Efficiency, Incidence Angle Modifier, and Time Constant	291	(10)
Test Data	301	(2)
Thermal Test Data Conversion	303	(4)
Flow Rate Corrections to FR(τα)n and FRUL	307	(3)
Flow Distribution in Collectors	310	(1)
In Situ Collectors Performance	311	(1)
Practical Considerations for Flat-Plate Collectors	312	(3)
Putting It All Together	315	(5)
Summary	320	(4)
References	321	(3)
Concentrating Collectors	324	(52)
Collector Configurations	325	(2)
Concentration Ratio	327	(2)
Thermal Performance of Concentrating Collectors	329	(7)
Optical Performance of Concentrating Collectors	336	(2)
Cylindrical Absorber Arrays	338	(2)
Optical Characteristics of Nonimaging Concentrators	340	(7)
Orientation and Absorbed Energy for CPC Collectors	347	(5)
Performance of CPC Collectors	352	(1)
Linear Imaging Concentrators: Geometry	353	(4)
Images Formed by Perfect Linear Concentrators	357	(5)
Images from Imperfect Linear Concentrators	362	(2)
Ray-Trace Methods for Evaluating Concentrators	364	(1)
Incidence Angle Modifiers and Energy Balances	364	(6)
Paraboloidal Concentrators	370	(1)
Central-Receiver Collectors	371	(1)
Practical Considerations	372	(4)
References	373	(3)
Energy Storage	376	(36)
Process Loads and Solar Collector Outputs	376	(2)
Energy Storage in Solar Process Systems	378	(1)
Water Storage	379	(3)
Stratification in Storage Tanks	382	(5)
Packed-Bed Storage	387	(8)
Storage Walls	395	(2)
Seasonal Storage	397	(2)
Phase Change Energy Storage	399	(5)
Chemical Energy Storage	404	(1)
Battery Storage	405	(7)
References	409	(3)
Solar Process Loads	412	(13)
Examples of Time-Dependent Loads	413	(1)
Hot-Water Loads	414	(1)
Space Heating Loads, Degree-Days, and Balance Temperature	415	(3)
Building Loss Coefficients	418	(2)
Building Energy Storage Capacity	420	(1)
Cooling Loads	420	(1)
Swimming Pool Heating Loads	421	(4)
References	423	(2)
System Thermal Calculations	425	(25)
Component Models	425	(2)
Collector Heat Exchanger Factor	427	(2)
Duct and Pipe Loss Factors	429	(3)
Controls	432	(2)
Collector Arrays: Series Connections	434	(2)
Performance of Partially Shaded Collectors	436	(2)
Series Arrays with Sections having Different Orientations	438	(3)
Use of Modified Collector Equations	441	(3)
System Models	444	(3)
Solar Fraction and Solar Savings Fraction	447	(1)
Summary	448	(2)
References	449	(1)
Solar Process Economics	450	(31)
Costs of Solar Process Systems	450	(3)
Design Variables	453	(1)
Economic Figures of Merit	454	(3)
Discounting and Inflation	457	(2)
Present-Worth Factor	459	(3)
Life-Cycle Savings Method	462	(5)
Evaluation of Other Economic Indicators	467	(3)
The P1, P2 Method	470	(5)
Uncertainties in Economic Analyses	475	(3)
Economic Analysis Using Solar Savings Fraction	478	(1)
Summary	479	(2)
References	479	(2)
PART II APPLICATIONS	481	(174)
Solar Water Heating: Active and Passive	483	(26)
Water Heating Systems	483	(4)
Freezing, Boiling, and Scaling	487	(3)
Auxiliary Energy	490	(2)
Forced-Circulation Systems	492	(2)
Low-Flow Pumped Systems	494	(1)
Natural-Circulation Systems	495	(3)
Integral Collector Storage Systems	498	(2)
Retrofit Water Heaters	500	(1)
Water Heating in Space Heating and Cooling Systems	501	(1)
Testing and Rating of Solar Water Heaters	501	(2)
Economics of Solar Water Heating	503	(3)
Swimming Pool Heating	506	(1)
Summary	507	(2)
References	507	(2)
Building Heating: Active	509	(39)
Historical Notes	510	(1)
Solar Heating Systems	511	(4)
CSU House III Flat-Plate Liquid System	515	(2)
CSU House II Air System	517	(4)
Heating System Parametric Study	521	(4)
Solar Energy--Heat Pump Systems	525	(6)
Phase Change Storage Systems	531	(3)
Seasonal Energy Storage Systems	534	(3)
Solar and Off-Peak Electric Systems	537	(2)
Solar System Overheating	539	(1)
Solar Heating Economics	540	(3)
Architectural Considerations	543	(5)
References	545	(3)
Building Heating: Passive and Hybrid Methods	548	(31)
Concepts of Passive Heating	549	(1)
Comfort Criteria and Heating Loads	550	(1)
Movable Insulation and Controls	550	(1)
Shading: Overhangs and Wingwalls	551	(5)
Direct-Gain Systems	556	(5)
Collector-Storage Walls and Roofs	561	(4)
Sunspaces	565	(1)
Active Collection--Passive Storage Hybrid Systems	566	(3)
Other Hybrid Systems	569	(1)
Passive Applications	569	(6)
Heat Distribution in Passive Buildings	575	(1)
Costs and Economics of Passive Heating	575	(4)
References	577	(2)
Solar Cooling	579	(29)
Solar Absorption Cooling	580	(2)
Theory of Absorption Cooling	582	(5)
Combined Solar Heating and Cooling	587	(2)
Simulation Study of Solar Air Conditioning	589	(4)
Operating Experience with Solar Cooling	593	(2)
Applications of Solar Absorption Air Conditioning	595	(1)
Solar Desiccant Cooling	596	(2)
Ventilation and Recirculation Desiccant Cycles	598	(2)
Solar-Mechanical Cooling	600	(3)
Solar-Related Air Conditioning	603	(2)
Passive Cooling	605	(3)
References	605	(3)
Solar Industrial Process Heat	608	(17)
Integration with Industrial Processes	608	(1)
Mechanical Design Considerations	609	(1)
Economics of Industrial Process Heat	610	(1)
Open-Circuit Air Heating Applications	611	(3)
Recirculating Air System Applications	614	(4)
Once-Through Industrial Water Heating	618	(1)
Recirculating Industrial Water Heating	618	(3)
Shallow-Pond Water Heaters	621	(2)
Summary	623	(2)
References	623	(2)
Solar Thermal Power Systems	625	(14)
Thermal Conversion Systems	625	(1)
Gila Bend Pumping System	626	(2)
Luz Systems	628	(4)
Central-Receiver Systems	632	(2)
Solar One and Solar Two Power Plants	634	(5)
References	637	(2)
Solar Ponds: Evaporative Processes	639	(16)
Salt-Gradient Solar Ponds	639	(2)
Pond Theory	641	(2)
Applications of Ponds	643	(1)
Solar Distillation	644	(6)
Evaporation	650	(1)
Direct Solar Drying	651	(1)
Summary	652	(3)
References	652	(3)
PART III DESIGN METHODS	655	(145)
Simulations in Solar Process Design	657	(15)
Simulation Programs	657	(1)
Utility of Simulations	658	(1)
Information from Simulations	659	(1)
Trnsys: Thermal Process Simulation Program	660	(7)
Simulations and Experiments	667	(1)
Meteorological Data	667	(3)
Limitations of Simulations	670	(2)
References	671	(1)
Design of Active Systems: f-Chart	672	(24)
Review of Design Methods	672	(1)
The f-Chart Method	673	(4)
The f-Chart for Liquid Systems	677	(6)
The f-Chart for Air Systems	683	(4)
Service Water Heating Systems	687	(2)
The f-Chart Results	689	(2)
Parallel Solar Energy--Heat Pump Systems	691	(2)
Summary	693	(3)
References	694	(2)
Design of Active Systems by Utilizability Methods	696	(19)
Hourly Utilizability	697	(3)
Daily Utilizability	700	(3)
The φ, f-Chart Method	703	(10)
Summary	713	(2)
References	714	(1)
Design of Passive and Hybrid Heating Systems	715	(32)
Approaches to Passive Design	715	(1)
Solar-Load Ratio Method	716	(8)
Unutilizability Design Method: Direct Gain	724	(7)
Unutilizability Design Method: Collector-Storage Walls	731	(8)
Hybrid Systems: Active Collection with Passive Storage	739	(6)
Other Hybrid Systems	745	(2)
References	745	(2)
Design of Photovoltaic Systems	747	(29)
Photovoltaic Converters	748	(1)
PV Generator Characteristics and Models	749	(10)
Cell Temperature	759	(2)
Load Characteristics and Direct-Coupled Systems	761	(3)
Controls and Maximum Power Point Trackers	764	(2)
Applications	766	(1)
Design Procedures	767	(6)
High-Flux PV Generators	773	(1)
Summary	773	(3)
References	774	(2)
Wind Energy	776	(24)
Introduction	776	(4)
Wind Resource	780	(8)
One-Dimensional Wind Turbine Model	788	(5)
Estimating Wind Turbine Average Power and Energy Production	793	(5)
Summary	798	(2)
References	798	(2)
APPENDIXES	800	(93)
Problems	800	(40)
Nomenclature	840	(5)
International System of Units	845	(2)
Monthly Rb as Function of φ and φ -- β	847	(8)
Properties of Materials	855	(5)
Present-Worth Factors	860	(4)
Meteorological Data	864	(7)
Solar Position Diagrams	871	(6)
Average Shading Factors for Overhangs	877	(16)
Index	893