Spatial Behavior A Geographic Perspective

by Golledge, Reginald G.; Stimson, Robert J.

• ISBN13: 9781572300507
• ISBN10: 1572300507
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1996-12-27
• Publisher: The Guilford Press

Summary

How do human beings negotiate the spaces in which they live, work, and play? How are firms and institutions, and their spatial behaviors, being affected by processes of economic and societal change? What decisions do they make about their natural and built environment, and how are these decisions acted out? Updating and expanding concepts of decision making and choice behavior on different geographic scales, this major revision of the authors' acclaimed Analytical Behavioral Geography presents theoretical foundations, extensive case studies, and empirical evidence of human behavior in a comprehensive range of physical, social, and economic settings. Generously illustrated with maps, diagrams, and tables, the volume also covers issues of gender, discusses traditionally excluded groups such as the physically and mentally challenged, and addresses the pressing needs of our growing elderly population.

Author Biography

Reginald G. Golledge, Ph.D., is Professor of Geography at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His interests include spatial cognition, the acquisition and use of spatial knowledge across the life-span, cognitive mapping, individual decision-making, household activity patterns, and gender issues in spatial cognition. Legally blind, some of his current research includes: comparison of spatial abilities of blind and sighted persons; development of a Personal Guidance System (PGS) for blind travelers; disposable tactual strip maps for blind travelers; evaluation of auditory/tactual information systems as travel planning aids; and travel needs of the non-driving disabled.

Robert J. Stimson, Ph.D., is Professor of Urban Studies at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia. He is also a Director of the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute and responsible for the operation of its Queensland office. Educated in geography at the University of New England and later taking his doctorate at the Flinders University of South Australia, Stimson is recognised as one of the leading urban researchers in Australia. He has published widely in social, economic and behavioral aspects of urban development in Australia, and more recently has worked on aspects of the internationalization of the Australian space economy and the growth of mega city regions in the Pacific Rim region. Stimson has longstanding multidisciplinary interests including the application of survey research methods in the investigation of spatial behaviour and the role of institutions in public policy and urban development and planning. His previous appointments include Dean of the Faculty of Management at the University of Canberra, Director of the Australian Institute of Urban Studies, and as a geographer in the School of Social Sciences at the Flinders University, South Australia, where he was also Director of the Centre for Applied Social and Survey Research.

Table of Contents

Preface	vii
Society, Space, and Behavior	1	(30)
Spatial Behavior in a Changing World	1	(1)
The Origin of Behavioral Analysis in Geography	1	(2)
Process Orientation	3	(1)
Form	3	(1)
Process	4	(1)
Behavior in Space versus Spatial Behavior	4	(3)
Dominant Characteristics of Spatial Behavior	7	(3)
New Models of Behavior	7	(1)
New Models of Environment	8	(1)
Micro Level Focus	9	(1)
Macro Level Focus	9	(1)
The Basis for Generalization	10	(1)
Issues in Research Design: Data Collection and Analysis	10	(12)
Critical Questions for Researchers to Ask	10	(1)
Some Methodological Considerations and Choices	11	(2)
Validity and Reliability	13	(1)
Qualitative Methods	14	(2)
Case Studies	16	(3)
Survey Research Methods	19	(3)
Gender Roles in Fieldwork and Data Collection	22	(1)
Society, Economy, and Space	22	(1)
Epistemological Bases	23	(3)
What Remains of the Positivist Tradition	23	(1)
Alternative Epistemologies	24	(1)
Cross-Disciplinary Enrichment	25	(1)
A Paradigm for Understanding Human-Environment Relationships	26	(2)
Spatial Behavioral Research Today	28	(3)
Decision Making and Choice Behaviors	31	(40)
Conceptualizing the Decision Process	31	(1)
First Motivated Response: Activating the Decision-Making Process	32	(2)
Information Search	33	(1)
Behavior-Space Perception	33	(1)
Activating the Cognitive Map	34	(1)
Movement Imagery	34	(1)
The Second Motivated Act	34	(2)
The Choice Act	34	(1)
Provisional Try Behavior	35	(1)
Feedback and Evaluation	35	(1)
Normative Assumptions about Decisions and Behaviors	36	(6)
Population Assumptions	42	(1)
The Environments in Which Decisions Are Made	43	(3)
The Physical Environment	43	(1)
The Built Environment: Examples of Descriptive Theory	43	(2)
Economic and Societal Environments	45	(1)
Cognitive Environments	45	(1)
Types of Systems and Societies	46	(1)
Risk and Uncertainty	47	(1)
Typologies of Decision-Making Theories and Models	48	(11)
Classical Normative Theories and Models	48	(4)
Behavioral Decision Models	52	(1)
Applied Decision Models	53	(1)
Choice Models	54	(3)
Choosing between Decision Models	57	(2)
Decision Support Systems	59	(3)
Characteristics of a Decision Support System	60	(1)
DSS Subsystems	61	(1)
Use of DSS	62	(1)
Macro Behavioral Assumptions: Institutions, Strategies, and Policies	62	(8)
A Framework for Planning and Decision Making in an Urban Setting	62	(1)
Strategic Approaches to Decision Making	63	(2)
The Harvard SWOT Analysis	65	(4)
Plans, Policies, and Projects	69	(1)
Conclusion	70	(1)
The Big Picture: Processes of Economic, Technological, and Social Change	71	(40)
A Rapidly Changing World	71	(2)
Globalization and the Processes of Internationalization	73	(7)
The Emerging Multipolar Global Economy	74	(4)
The New International Division of Labor	78	(1)
The Transnational Corporation	78	(2)
Technological Change	80	(4)
Long Waves of Innovation and Economic Growth	81	(1)
The Shrinking of Distance	82	(2)
Implications of Globalization for Location Theory	84	(8)
Basic Elements in the Production Process	85	(1)
Strategic Alliances	86	(1)
Global Networks and Global Concentrations	87	(3)
World Cities	90	(1)
A Model of Internationalized Operation for a Firm	90	(2)
Structural Economic Change within Economies	92	(8)
Changes in Employment in the United States Since 1970	94	(3)
Services within the Economies of the Newly Industrialized Countries	97	(1)
Toward Small Business Growth and Female Employment in Part-Time Jobs	98	(2)
Social and Demographic Change	100	(8)
A Mobile Society	100	(1)
The Growth and Decline of Regions: Components of Population Change	101	(2)
Changing Age Structures: The ``Graying'' of Society	103	(2)
Changing Household Structures	105	(1)
Increasing Participation of Women in the Labor Force	106	(1)
Racial and Ethnic Diversity	107	(1)
The Victims of Globalization: An Emerging Underclass	108	(3)
Urban Patterns and Trends	111	(44)
Focusing on Cities	111	(1)
Changes in National Urban Systems	111	(10)
An Overview	112	(2)
Suburbanization and Inner-City Decline	114	(2)
Counterurbanization in the 1970s	116	(2)
Resurgence of Metropolitan Concentration in the 1980s	118	(2)
Concentration and Dispersal: A Matter of Scale	120	(1)
The Polycentric Urban Form and Structure of the Information and Services City	121	(7)
New Locational Forces in the Information and Services City	123	(1)
The ``Edge City'' Phenomenon	124	(1)
Technospaces	125	(2)
Airports and Seaports	127	(1)
Economic Performance and Employment in Cities: Trends and Patterns	128	(6)
The United States Experience in the 1980s	128	(3)
Employment Patterns within a World City: Sydney	131	(2)
Implications for Commuting	133	(1)
Urban Social Space and Residential Patterns	134	(8)
The Notion of Social Space	134	(3)
Ecological and Psychological Fallacy	137	(1)
The Constructs of Territorial Social Space: Social Area Analysis	137	(2)
Factorial Ecology Studies	139	(1)
The Relationship between Social Space Dimensions and Territorial Space in Cities	139	(3)
Socioeconomic Disadvantage in Urban Space	142	(2)
Differences in Access Opportunity and Social Disadvantage	142	(1)
Duality within Cities	142	(2)
New Paradigms for the City	144	(10)
A ``Metroplex'' of Spaces and Places	144	(2)
Institutional Rigidities and the New Demands of the Services and Information Age	146	(2)
Smart Infrastructure	148	(1)
The NIMBY Syndrome	149	(1)
Strategic Approaches to Regional Development and Planning	150	(4)
The Interface of Macro and Micro Milieux	154	(1)
Acquiring Spatial Knowledge	155	(33)
Shifting to a Micro Behavioral Perspective	155	(1)
Types of Behavior	155	(1)
Spatial Abilities	156	(2)
Definitions	156	(1)
The Psychological Definition of Spatial Abilities	157	(1)
Place Learning	158	(5)
Search and Learning	159	(1)
Developmental Theory	159	(4)
The Nature of Spatial Knowledge	163	(2)
Basic Components	163	(1)
Acquiring Spatial Knowledge	163	(2)
Theories of the Development of Spatial Knowledge	165	(4)
From Landmark to Route to Survey Knowledge	165	(1)
The Siegel and White Hypothesis	165	(2)
Anchorpoint Theory and Knowledge Hierarchies	167	(2)
Children's Wayfinding Behavior: Case Studies	169	(6)
Learning about One's Neighborhood	169	(1)
Wayfinding in a Residential Neighborhood in Goleta, California	170	(5)
Experiencing Environments	175	(9)
Learning from Maps versus Learning from Travel	175	(2)
Pointing	177	(3)
Learning Shortcuts	180	(3)
Learning Layouts	183	(1)
An Artifical Intelligence Model of Wayfinding	184	(4)
Perception, Attitudes, and Risk	188	(36)
The Experience and Conceptualization of Space	188	(1)
A Problem of Defining Terms: What Are Perception and Cognition?	189	(3)
Perception	189	(1)
Cognition	190	(1)
Immediacy and Scale Dependence	191	(1)
Factors Influencing the Nature and Structure of the Perceived Environment	192	(8)
The Fuctionalist Approach	192	(1)
Perception as an Encoding Process	192	(2)
The Concept of Scale in Perception	194	(1)
Perceptual Thresholds	194	(1)
Perception and the World of Identifiable Things	194	(1)
Perceptual Constancy	195	(1)
Perceptual Focusing or Attention	195	(1)
Preparatory Sets	196	(1)
Individual Needs and Values	197	(1)
Cultural Values	197	(1)
Ecological and Anthropocentric Constraints	198	(1)
Location and Orientation of Individuals	198	(2)
Attitudes	200	(7)
Attitude and Uncertainty	200	(4)
The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Formation	204	(1)
Attitudes, Values, and Stereotypes	205	(1)
Attitudes, Motivation, and Emotions	205	(2)
Uncertainty and Risk	207	(7)
Perception of Risk Frequency and Probability	208	(1)
Changing Risk Perception	209	(1)
Judgment of Risk	209	(1)
Using Risk Perception Studies	209	(2)
Risk Assessment	211	(1)
Heuristics for Evaluating Risk	211	(1)
Errors in Risk Assessment	211	(1)
Examples of the Use of Heuristic Rules in Risk Assessment	212	(2)
Informing People about Risk	214	(1)
Attitudes to Technologically Produced Hazardous Events	214	(3)
Nuclear Waste	214	(1)
The Case of Yucca Mountain	215	(2)
Natural Hazards and Perceived Risks	217	(4)
Risk Perception in Natural Environments	217	(1)
An Example: Reaction to Cyclones	217	(2)
The Case of Bushfires in Australia	219	(2)
Perception of the Built Environment	221	(3)
Fear of Crime: A Case Study	221	(1)
Visual Evaluation by Residents and Visitors	222	(2)
Spatial Cognition, Cognitive Mapping, and Cognitive Maps	224	(43)
Background	224	(3)
Characteristics of Spatial Cognition	227	(2)
A Developmental Base	227	(1)
Radical Image Theory	228	(1)
The Conceptual Propositional Theory	228	(1)
Dual-Coding Theory	229	(1)
Cognitive Maps and Cognitive Mapping	229	(5)
Cognitive Mapping	229	(1)
The Mapping Process	230	(4)
Cognitive Maps	234	(1)
Cognitive Map Metaphors	234	(4)
Basic Metaphors	234	(2)
Cognitive Maps as Internal GIS	236	(1)
Debatable Alternatives	237	(1)
The Use of Cognitive Maps	238	(2)
Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behavior	238	(1)
Cognitive Maps as Planning Aids	239	(1)
Cognitive Maps and Disability	239	(1)
Cognitive Maps and Crime	240	(1)
Methods for Externally Representing Cognitive Maps	240	(10)
Externalizing Information: Cognitive Configurations or Spatial Products	240	(2)
Sketch Maps	242	(3)
Multidimensional Methods	245	(1)
Anchors and Errors in Cognitive Maps	246	(4)
Images of Cities	250	(1)
The City as a Trip	251	(2)
The City as a Hierarchical Structure	253	(4)
Anchor points	253	(1)
Regionalized Hierarchies	254	(1)
Hierarchies of Paths	255	(1)
Priming	256	(1)
Cognition and Behavior in Classic Models of City Structure	257	(4)
Cognitive Distance	261	(6)
Distinguishing between Subjective and Objective Distance	261	(2)
Methods for Evaluating Cognitive Distance	263	(4)
Activities in Time and Space	267	(42)
The Nature of Human Activities in Time and Space	267	(1)
Time Geography	268	(9)
Constraints, Paths, and Projects	268	(2)
The Time-Space Prism	270	(1)
Physical Conditions	270	(1)
The Nature of Constraints: Projects and Paths	271	(2)
Scales of Analysis	273	(2)
Applying the Space-Time Prism Concept within GIS	275	(2)
Action Spaces and Activity Spaces	277	(6)
Individual Action Spaces	278	(1)
Components of Action Spaces	279	(1)
Temporal and Spatial Aspects of Activity Space	280	(3)
Activity Spaces, Trips, and Scale Differences	283	(6)
Work Trips	284	(1)
Social Trips	285	(1)
Trips to Other Activity Locations	285	(1)
Substitution Effect	286	(1)
Multipurpose Trips	286	(2)
Summary of Factors Influencing Daily Activity Patterns	288	(1)
An Activity Approach to Behavior in Space and Time	289	(2)
Activities as Routines	290	(1)
Activity Systems	290	(1)
Obligatory and Discretionary Acts	290	(1)
Early Approaches to Modeling Human Activities	291	(13)
The Transductive Approach	292	(3)
The Routine and Deliberated Choice Approach	295	(5)
The Routine and Culturally Transmitted Behavior Approach	300	(4)
Collecting Data on Activities in Time and Space	304	(5)
Time Budgets	304	(1)
Methods of Collecting Time-Budget Data	305	(3)
Duration, Frequency, and Sequence of Activities	308	(1)
Activity Analysis in Travel and Transportation Modeling	309	(39)
The Evolution of Transportation and Travel Models	309	(4)
The Shortcomings of the Traditional Urban Transportation-Planning System	309	(3)
Discrete Choice Models	312	(1)
Early Behavioral Approaches	313	(2)
Multinomial Logit Models	313	(1)
Markov Process Models	313	(1)
Threshold Models	314	(1)
Notion of Indifference	314	(1)
Early Time-Space Activity Models	314	(1)
The Human Activity Approach	315	(13)
The Activity Concept	316	(3)
A Model of Individual Travel Behavior	319	(3)
A Demand Model for Travel Using Queuing Theory	322	(3)
The Household Activity-Travel Simulator Model	325	(1)
A Situational Approach to Modeling Individual Travel Behavior	326	(2)
A Cognitive Framework for Analyzing Activity Choice	328	(4)
Destination Choice in Trip Behavior	329	(1)
Problems in the Spatial Choice Paradigm	330	(1)
The Cognitive Paradigm and Repetitive Travel	331	(1)
Computational Process Modeling of Household Activity Scheduling	332	(7)
Modeling Travel Route Choice	333	(1)
Starchild; Identifying and Choosing Representative Daily Schedules	334	(1)
Scheduler: Generating an Activity Schedule	335	(2)
Data Requirements and Operational Complexity of the Models	337	(2)
Planning Applications: A Simulation Model for Activities, Resources and Travel	339	(9)
The Characteristics of the SMART Model	340	(2)
The Household Activity Simulator	342	(1)
A GIS for SMART	343	(1)
Operationalizing the SMART Model	344	(1)
Applying the Model	345	(3)
Consumer Behavior and Retail Center Location	348	(39)
The Evolution of Consumer Behavior Models	348	(1)
Gravity Model Approaches: From Deterministic to Probabilistic Analysis	349	(5)
Classical Retail Gravity Models	349	(2)
Probabilistic Retail Gravity Models	351	(2)
Refinements of the Huff Model	353	(1)
Disaggregate Discrete Choice Models	354	(4)
Types of Discrete Choice Models	354	(3)
Discrete Choice Models: An Example	357	(1)
Information-Processing Models	358	(2)
From Rationality to Satisficing and Information Processing	358	(1)
Information Integration	359	(1)
Imagery and Consumer Behavior	360	(5)
Distance-Related Studies	360	(1)
Search and Learning	361	(1)
Store and Center Image	362	(1)
Multidimensional Scaling	362	(1)
Retailer's Cognitions of Store and Shopping Center Environments	363	(2)
The Development of Planned Shopping Centers in the United States	365	(14)
The Evolution and Proliferation of Shopping Centers	365	(2)
Tenant Mixes and Functional Make-up	367	(4)
Retail Center Policy Trends in the United States	371	(5)
Environmental and Other Public Policies	376	(1)
Locations and Characteristics of Shopping Centers	376	(3)
The Role of Government in Shopping Center Locations	379	(6)
Economic Impacts	382	(1)
Externalities	383	(1)
Social Justice and Equity	384	(1)
Future Trends	385	(2)
Place and Space	387	(37)
Views of Place and Space	387	(1)
Affect and Emotion	388	(4)
Difficulties of Definition	388	(1)
Critical Components of Emotions	389	(1)
Hierarchical Levels of Affective Response	390	(1)
An Interactional Constructivist Model	390	(1)
The Individual's Assessment of Setting	391	(1)
Landscape Perception	392	(4)
Landscapes and Cultural Values	392	(1)
Place	393	(3)
Historical Preservation	396	(4)
Evaluating Places and Assessing Landscapes	400	(5)
Describing What Is There	400	(2)
Specification of Attributes	402	(1)
Selection of Indicators	403	(2)
Another View of Space and Spaces	405	(1)
The Language of Space	406	(8)
Nouns	409	(1)
Defining Where Things Are	410	(4)
The Utility of Place	414	(3)
Environments for Recreation and Leisure	417	(7)
Product Cycle and Typology of Tourists	418	(3)
Some Public Policy Implications	421	(3)
The Causes and Nature of Migration	424	(35)
A Complex Phenomenon	424	(1)
The Nature of Migration and Migration Studies	425	(3)
Data Sources	425	(1)
Approaches to the Study of Migration	426	(1)
Migration and Mobility	427	(1)
Behavioral Approaches	427	(1)
Types of Migration and Mobility	428	(4)
Long-Distance Migration and Residential Mobility	428	(1)
Partial Displacement Migration or Mobility	429	(1)
Total Displacement Migration	429	(1)
Relating Geographic, Social, and Occupational Mobility	430	(1)
Necessary or Obligatory Moves versus Moves Caused by Needs	430	(1)
Circulatory Migration	431	(1)
Migration and Assimilation	431	(1)
Modeling Aggregate Migration Flows	432	(12)
Laws of Migration	432	(1)
The Empirical Approach: Migration Fields	433	(2)
The Gravity Model and the Intervening Opportunities Model	435	(3)
Push-Pull Models	438	(2)
An Optimizing Gravity Model	440	(1)
Attractors and the Attracted: An Alternative Approach	441	(3)
Limitations of the Gravity Model Approaches	444	(4)
Return and Onward-Moving Migrants	445	(1)
Predictive Capacity versus Understanding of Process	445	(1)
The Mobility Transition Hypothesis: Problems with the Assumptions of Models	446	(2)
Selectivity Differentials and Motivation in Migration: Toward Micro Models of Migration	448	(8)
Mobility and Stage in the Family Life Cycle	449	(1)
Motivation Underlying Migration	449	(2)
Migration as a Decision Process	451	(1)
A Value Expectancy Model of Migration	452	(4)
Habitas as a Cultural Process in Migration	456	(3)
Residential Mobility and Location Decisions	459	(30)
A Framework for Analysis	459	(2)
Mobility within Cities	461	(3)
Patterns of Intraurban Population Change and Mobility	462	(2)
Life Cycle of Suburbs	464	(1)
From Aggregate to Individual Choice Models	464	(1)
Residential Aspirations, Preferences, and Achievement	465	(11)
Why Families Move: Rossi's Classical Study	467	(1)
Preference and Desirability Studies	467	(6)
Stressors and the Level of Residential Satisfaction	473	(3)
A Residential Location Decision Process Model	476	(3)
The Nature of Residential Search and Choice	479	(7)
Spatial Models of Search	480	(3)
The Length of Search	483	(2)
Information in Search and Choice	485	(1)
Relating Residential Relocation Behavior to the Urban Structure	486	(3)
Housing Careers	487	(1)
Life Course	487	(2)
Geography and Special Populations	489	(47)
Geography and ``The Other''	489	(1)
Disability	490	(2)
Definitions of the Disabled	490	(1)
Distribution of Discriminatory Practices	490	(2)
Wheelchair Populations	492	(7)
Environmental Design for Wheelchair Users	492	(3)
Enabling Legislation	495	(1)
Barrier-Free Environments	496	(1)
Cross-Disability Problems	496	(1)
Transportation	497	(1)
The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)	497	(1)
Assistive Technology	498	(1)
Blindness and Vision Impairment	499	(5)
Spatial Abilities With and Without Vision	499	(1)
The Spatial Distribution of Blindness	500	(4)
Design of Environments for Those Without Vision: A Case Study	504	(1)
Spatial Abilities of Vision-Impaired People	505	(8)
Wayfinding by Those Without Vision	506	(3)
Theories of Difference	509	(1)
Cognitive Maps of the Blind: A Case Study	510	(1)
Spatial Orientation	511	(2)
Wayfinding Strategies	513	(9)
Simple Heuristics	513	(2)
Spatial Updating	515	(2)
Wayfinding via the Process of Path Integration	517	(4)
Wayfinding Using Assistive Devices	521	(1)
The Use of Bus Transit by the Blind	522	(3)
The Mentally Challenged	525	(11)
Attitudes Toward Retardation	525	(1)
Spatial Competence	526	(2)
Environmental Characteristics Known to Retarded People: Frames of Reference	528	(1)
Spatial Concepts: A Case Study of Retarded Groups	528	(8)
Gendering and the Elderly	536	(28)
The Functional Significance of Two Major Divisions of Society	536	(1)
Women and Gender Issues	537	(1)
An Epistemological Basis for the Lack of Attention to Gender Issues	537	(1)
Gender Bias in Geographic Research	538	(1)
Rethinking Urban Residential Structure from a Feminist Perspective	538	(3)
A Critique of Social Area and Factorial Ecology Analysis	539	(1)
The Interaction between Gender and Class in Residential Segregation	540	(1)
Home-Work and Work-Home Relationships	541	(5)
Effects of Home Location on Workplace Selection	541	(1)
Effects of Workplace on Locational Choice of Home	542	(1)
Social Relations and Status	543	(1)
Commuting and Work: Gender, Occupation, and Race Differences	544	(2)
Do Spatial Abilities Vary between the Sexes?	546	(3)
Sex Differences in Spatial Aptitudes	546	(1)
Sex Differences in Spatial Behavior	546	(1)
Some Experiments	547	(1)
Discrimination and Equal Opportunity Issues	547	(2)
The Elderly	549	(3)
Diversity in Aging	549	(1)
Mobility Patterns of the Elderly	550	(2)
Retirement and Residential Relocation	552	(5)
Push-Pull Factors and Segmentation	552	(2)
Environment and Well-Being	554	(3)
Retirement Housing	557	(7)
A Typology of Retirement Housing	557	(1)
Attributes Sought by the Elderly in Retirement Housing	558	(1)
Policy and Planning Issues	559	(2)
Financing and Sponsorship of Retirement Communities	561	(1)
Segregated Communities	562	(2)
References	564	(35)
Index	599