Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology

by Bhushan, Bharat

• ISBN13: 9783540298557
• ISBN10: 354029855X
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-11-30
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

Since 2004 the Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology has established itself as the definitive reference in the nanoscience and nanotechnology area. It integrates the knowledge from nanofabrication, nanodevices, nanomechanics, Nanotribology, materials science, and reliability engineering in just one volume. Beside the presentation of nanostructures, micro/nanofabrication, and micro/nanodevices, special emphasis is on scanning probe microscopy, nanotribology and nanomechanics, molecularly thick films, industrial applications and microdevice reliability, and on social aspects. In its 2nd edition, the book grew from 6 to 8 parts and from 38 to 58 chapters. More information is added to such fields as bionanotechnology, nanorobotics, and MEMS/NEMS reliability. The book is organized by an experienced editor with a universal knowledge and written by an international team of over 150 distinguished experts. It addresses mechanical and electrical engineers, materials scientists, physicists and chemists who work either in the nano area or in a field that is or will be influenced by this new key technology. From the reviews of the first edition: "The strong point is its focus on many of the practical aspects of nanotechnology... Anyone working in or learning about the field of nanotechnology would find this and excellent working handbook." IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine "Outstandingly succeeds in its aima? It really is a magnificent volume and every scientific library and nanotechnology group should have a copy." Materials World "The integrity and authoritativenessa? is guaranteed by an experienced editor and an international team of authors which have well summarized in their chapters information on fundamentals and applications." Polymer News

Author Biography

Dr. Bharat Bhushan received an M.S. in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1971, an M.S. in mechanics and a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973 and 1976, respectively, an MBA from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY in 1980, Doctor Technicae from the University of Trondheim at Trondheim, Norway in 1990, a Doctor of Technical Sciences from the Warsaw University of Technology at Warsaw, Poland in 1996, and Doctor Honoris Causa from the Metal-Polymer Research Institute of National Academy of Sciences at Gomel, Belarus in 2000. He is a registered professional engineer (mechanical) and presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Winbigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate Research Faculty Advisor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and the Director of the Nanotribology Laboratory for Information Storage & MEMS/NEMS (NLIM) at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. He is an internationally recognized expert of tribology on the macro- to nanoscales, and is one of the most prolific authors in the field. He is considered by some a pioneer of the tribology and mechanics of magnetic storage devices and a leading researcher in the fields of nanotribology and nanomechanics using scanning probe microscopy and applications to micro/nanotechnology. He has authored 5 technical books, 45 handbook chapters, more than 450 technical papers in refereed journals, and more than 60 technical reports, has edited more than 25 books, and holds 14 U.S. patents.

Table of Contents

List of Abbreviations	p. XLI
Introduction
Introduction to Nanotechnology Bharat Bhushan	p. 1
Nanotechnology - Definition and Examples	p. 1
Background and Research Expenditures	p. 4
Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics)	p. 6
Applications in Different Fields	p. 7
Various Issues	p. 8
Research Training	p. 8
Organization of Handbook	p. 9
References	p. 9
Nanostructures, Micro/Nanofabrication and Materials
Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications: Molecule-Based Devices	p. 13
Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials	p. 13
Molecular Switches and Logic Gates	p. 18
Solid State Devices	p. 26
Conclusions and Outlook	p. 38
References	p. 39
Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes	p. 43
Structure of Carbon Nanotubes	p. 44
Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes	p. 49
Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes	p. 65
Properties of Carbon Nanotubes	p. 69
Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects	p. 74
Applications of Carbon Nanotubes	p. 80
Concluding Remarks	p. 95
References	p. 95
Nanowires	p. 113
Synthesis	p. 115
Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires	p. 124
Applications	p. 145
Concluding Remarks	p. 152
References	p. 153
Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire Arrays	p. 161
Template-Based Approach	p. 162
Electrochemical Deposition	p. 163
Electrophoretic Deposition	p. 167
Template Filling	p. 172
Converting from Reactive Templates	p. 174
Summary and Concluding Remarks	p. 174
References	p. 175
Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication by Focused Ion Beam Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 179
Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication	p. 180
Nanoelectromechanics	p. 183
Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue from a Morpho Butterfly Scale Quasi-Structure	p. 190
Nanobiology	p. 191
Summary	p. 194
References	p. 195
Introduction to Micro/Nanofabrication	p. 197
Basic Microfabrication Techniques	p. 197
MEMS Fabrication Techniques	p. 210
Nanofabrication Techniques	p. 222
Summary and Conclusions	p. 233
References	p. 233
Nanoimprint Lithography Helmut Schift, Anders Kristensen	p. 239
Emerging Nanopatterning Methods	p. 241
Nanoimprint Process	p. 244
Tools and Materials for Nanoimprint	p. 255
Applications	p. 262
Conclusion and Outlook	p. 268
References	p. 270
Stamping Techniques for Micro- and Nanofabrication	p. 279
High-Resolution Stamps	p. 280
Microcontact Printing	p. 282
Nanotransfer Printing	p. 284
Applications	p. 288
Conclusions	p. 295
References	p. 295
Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical Systems	p. 299
Silicon	p. 299
Germanium-Based Materials	p. 306
Metals	p. 307
Harsh-Environment Semiconductors	p. 309
Ga As, InP, and Related III-V Materials	p. 314
Ferroelectric Materials	p. 316
Polymer Materials	p. 317
Future Trends	p. 318
References	p. 319
Complexity and Emergence as Design Principles for Engineering Decentralized Nanoscale Systems	p. 323
Definitions	p. 324
Examples and Experimental Analysis of Decentralized Systems in Nature	p. 331
Engineering Emergent Behavior into Nanoscale Systems: Thematic Examples of Synthetic Decentralized Nanostructures	p. 334
Conclusion	p. 343
References	p. 343
Nanometer-Scale Thermoelectric Materials	p. 345
The Promise of Thermoelectricity	p. 347
Theory of Thermoelectric Transport in Low-Dimensional Solids	p. 349
Two-Dimensional Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Wells	p. 359
One-Dimensional Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Wires	p. 360
Quasi-Zero-Dimensional Systems, Solids Containing Quantum Dots	p. 366
Conclusions	p. 370
References	p. 370
Nano- and Microstructured Semiconductor Materials for Macroelectronics	p. 375
Classes of Semiconductor Nanomaterials and their Preparation	p. 377
Generation of Thin Films of Ordered Nanostructures on Plastic Substrates	p. 384
Applications for Macroelectronics	p. 389
Outlook	p. 395
References	p. 395
Mems/Nems and Biomems/Nems
Next-Generation DNA Hybridization and Self-Assembly Nanofabrication Devices	p. 401
Electronic Microarray Technology	p. 403
Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes	p. 409
Conclusions	p. 411
References	p. 411
Mems/Nems Devices and Applications	p. 415
Mems Devices and Applications	p. 417
Nanoelectromechanical Systems (Nems)	p. 436
Current Challenges and Future Trends	p. 439
References	p. 440
Nanomechanical Cantilever Array Sensors	p. 443
Technique	p. 443
Cantilever Array Sensors	p. 445
Modes of Operation	p. 446
Microfabrication	p. 450
Measurement Set-Up	p. 450
Functionalization Techniques	p. 453
Applications	p. 455
Conclusions and Outlook	p. 455
References	p. 456
Therapeutic Nanodevices	p. 461
Definitions and Scope of Discussion	p. 462
Synthetic Approaches: """"Top-Down"""" Versus """"Bottom-Up"""" Approaches for Nanotherapeutic Device Components	p. 467
Technological and Biological Opportunities	p. 470
Applications of Nanotherapeutic Devices	p. 488
Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice and Prospects	p. 496
References	p. 499
G-Protein Coupled Receptors: Surface Display and Biosensor Technology	p. 505
The GPCR: G-Protein Activation Cycle	p. 507
Preparation of GPCRs and G-proteins	p. 509
Measurement of GPCR Signaling	p. 509
GPCR Biosensing	p. 511
Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling	p. 517
The Future of GPCRs in Nanobiotechnologies	p. 520
References	p. 520
Microfluidics and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-Chip	p. Chong H. Ahn
Materials for Microfluidic Devices and Micro/Nanofabrication Techniques	p. 524
Active Microfluidic Devices	p. 527
Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices	p. 532
Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis	p. 540
References	p. 545
Centrifuge-Based Fluidic Platforms	p. 549
Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion?	p. 550
Compact Disc or Micro-Centrifuge Fluidics	p. 552
CD Applications	p. 556
Conclusion	p. 567
References	p. 568
Micro/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic Devices	p. 571
Active or Programmable Droplet System	p. 572
Passive Droplet Control Techniques	p. 575
Applications	p. 582
Conclusion	p. 584
References	p. 584
Scanning Probe Microscopy
Scanning Probe Microscopy - Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes	p. 591
Scanning Tunneling Microscope	p. 593
Atomic Force Microscope	p. 597
AFM Instrumentation and Analyses	p. 613
References	p. 630
Probes in Scanning Microscopies Jason H. Hafner	p. 637
Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 638
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy	p. 648
References	p. 649
Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related Topics	p. 651
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)	p. 652
Applications to Semiconductors	p. 657
Applications to Insulators	p. 663
Applications to Molecules	p. 670
References	p. 673
Low-Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy	p. 679
Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures	p. 680
Instrumentation	p. 681
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy	p. 685
Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy	p. 698
References	p. 710
Higher-Harmonic Force Detection in Dynamic Force Microscopy	p. 717
Modeling of Tip-Sample Interaction Forces in Tapping-Mode AFM	p. 718
Enhancing a Specific Harmonic of the Interaction Force Using a Flexural Resonance	p. 721
Recovering the Time-Resolved Tip-Sample Forces with Torsional Vibrations	p. 724
Application Examples	p. 727
Higher Harmonic/Atomic Force Microscopy with Small Amplitudes	p. 731
References	p. 735
Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 737
Motivation: Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond	p. 737
Harmonic Oscillator: A Model System for Dynamic AFM	p. 741
Dynamic AFM Operational Modes	p. 743
Q-Control	p. 754
Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM	p. 758
Conclusion	p. 762
References	p. 762
Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy: From Simple Bonds to Complex Energy Landscapes	p. 767
Ligand Tip Chemistry	p. 768
Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces	p. 770
Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection	p. 771
Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy	p. 773
Recognition Force Spectroscopy: From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes	p. 775
Recognition Imaging	p. 782
Concluding Remarks	p. 784
References	p. 784
Nanotribology and Nanomechanics
Nanotribology, Nanomechanics and Materials Characterization	p. 791
Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques	p. 793
Surface Imaging, Friction and Adhesion	p. 804
Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining	p. 829
Indentation	p. 837
Boundary Lubrication	p. 841
Closure	p. 852
References	p. 853
Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin Films	p. 859
Introduction: Types of Surface Forces	p. 860
Methods Used to Study Surface Forces	p. 862
Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces	p. 866
Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids	p. 870
Adhesion and Capillary Forces	p. 880
Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits of Continuum Models	p. 886
Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry (Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces	p. 887
Liquid Lubricated Surfaces	p. 898
Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction	p. 909
References	p. 913
Interfacial Forces and Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids	p. 925
Hydrodynamic Force of Fluids Flowing in Micro- to Nanofluidics: A Question About No-Slip Boundary Condition	p. 926
Hydrophobic Interaction and Water at a Hydrophobicity Interface	p. 932
Ultrafast Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids: Combining Ultra-Fast Spectroscopy with Force Apparatus	p. 938
Contrasting Friction with Diffusion in Molecularly Thin Films	p. 941
Diffusion of Confined Molecules During Shear	p. 945
Summary	p. 946
References	p. 946
Scanning Probe Studies of Nanoscale Adhesion Between Solids in the Presence of Liquids and Monolayer Films	p. 951
The Importance of Adhesion at the Nanoscale	p. 951
Techniques for Measuring Adhesion	p. 952
Calibration of Forces, Displacements, and Tips	p. 957
The Effect of Liquid Capillaries on Adhesion	p. 959
Self-Assembled Monolayers	p. 968
Concluding Remarks	p. 973
References	p. 974
Friction and Wear on the Atomic Scale	p. 981
Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum	p. 982
The Tomlinson Model	p. 986
Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale	p. 988
Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction	p. 992
Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts	p. 996
Wear on the Atomic Scale	p. 999
Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction and Wear	p. 1001
Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 1004
Conclusion	p. 1006
References	p. 1007
Velocity Dependence of Nanoscale Friction, Adhesion and Wear	p. 1011
Bridging Science and Engineering for Nanotribological Investigations	p. 1012
Instrumentation	p. 1014
Velocity Dependence of Nanoscale Friction and Adhesion	p. 1017
Dominant Friction Regimes and Mechanisms	p. 1020
Nanoscale Friction Mapping	p. 1035
Wear Studies at High Sliding Velocities	p. 1037
Identifying Materials with Low Friction and Adhesion for Nanotechnological Applications	p. 1043
Closure	p. 1045
References	p. 1046
Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentation and Friction	p. 1051
Computational Details	p. 1052
Indentation	p. 1057
Friction and Lubrication	p. 1072
Conclusions	p. 1096
References	p. 1097
Nanoscale Mechanical Properties - Measuring Techniques and Applications	p. 1107
Local Mechanical Spectroscopy via Dynamic Contact AFM	p. 1108
Static Methods - Mesoscopic Samples, Shear and Young's Modulus	p. 1113
Scanning Nanoindentation as a Tool to Determine Nanomechanical Properties of Biological Tissue Under Dry and Wet Conditions	p. 1121
General Summary and Perspectives	p. 1132
References	p. 1133
Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin Films	p. 1137
Instrumentation	p. 1138
Data Analysis	p. 1144
Modes of Deformation	p. 1152
Thin Films and Multilayers	p. 1156
Developing Areas	p. 1161
References	p. 1161
Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and Tribology	p. 1167
Nomenclature	p. 1167
Introduction	p. 1169
Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties	p. 1171
Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters	p. 1175
Scale Effect in Friction	p. 1178
Scale Effect in Wear	p. 1190
Scale Effect in Interface Temperature	p. 1190
Closure	p. 1191
A Statistics of Particle Size Distribution	p. 1192
References	p. 1196
Mechanics of Biological Nanotechnology	p. 1199
Science at the Biology-Nanotechnology Interface	p. 1200
Scales at the Bio-Nano Interface	p. 1206
Modeling at the Nano-Bio Interface	p. 1212
Nature's Nanotechnology Revealed: Viruses as a Case Study	p. 1215
Concluding Remarks	p. 1220
References	p. 1220
Structural, Nanomechanical and Nanotribological Characterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Nanoindentation	p. 1223
Human Hair, Skin and Hair Care Products	p. 1226
Experimental Techniques	p. 1235
Structural Characterization Using an AFM	p. 1246
Nanomechanical Characterization Using Nanoindentation and Nanoscratch	p. 1252
Macroscale Tribological Characterization	p. 1266
Nanotribological Characterization Using an AFM	p. 1269
Closure	p. 1300
A Conditioner Thickness Approximation	p. 1302
References	p. 1302
Mechanical Properties ofNanostructures Bharat Bhushan	p. 1305
Experimental Techniques for Measurementof Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures	p. 1307
Experimental Results and Discussion	p. 1312
Finite Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness and Scratches	p. 1326
Closure	p. 1332
References	p. 1333
Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication
Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon Films Bharat Bhushan	p. 1339
Description of Common Deposition Techniques	p. 1343
Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization	p. 1347
Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization	p. 1353
Closure	p. 1374
References	p. 1375
Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) for Controlling Adhesion, Friction, and Wear Bharat Bhushan	p. 1379
A Brief Organic Chemistry Primer	p. 1382
Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer Chains; and End Groups in the Molecular Chains	p. 1386
Tribological Properties of SAMs	p. 1389
Closure	p. 1410
References	p. 1411
Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies	p. 1417
Lubricants Details	p. 1418
Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation, and Lubricant Spreading	p. 1420
Boundary Lubrication Studies	p. 1422
Closure	p. 1436
References	p. 1436
Kinetics and Energetics in Nanolubrication	p. 1439
Background: From Bulk to Molecular Lubrication	p. 1441
Thermal Activation Model of Lubricated Friction	p. 1443
Functional Behavior of Lubricated Friction	p. 1444
Thermodynamical Models Based on Small and Nonconforming Contacts	p. 1446
Limitationof the Gaussian Statistics - The Fractal Space	p. 1447
Fractal Mobility in Reactive Lubrication	p. 1448
Metastable Lubricant Systems in Large Conforming Contacts	p. 1450
Conclusion	p. 1451
References	p. 1451
Industrial Applications
The """"Millipede"""" - A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage System	p. 1457
The Millipede Concept	p. 1459
Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage	p. 1460
Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication	p. 1462
Array Characterization	p. 1463
x/y/z Medium Microscanner	p. 1465
First Write/Read Results with the 32x32 Array Chip	p. 1467
Polymer Medium	p. 1469
Read Channel Model	p. 1475
System Aspects	p. 1479
Conclusions	p. 1484
References	p. 1484
Nanotechnology for Data Storage Applications	p. 1487
Current Status of Commercial Data Storage Devices	p. 1489
Opportunities Offered by Nanotechnology for Data Storage	p. 1495
Conclusion	p. 1506
References	p. 1507
Microactuators for Dual-Stage Servo Systems in Magnetic Disk Files	p. 1509
Design of the Electrostatic Microactuator	p. 1511
Fabrication	p. 1520
Servo Control Design of MEMS Microactuator Dual-Stage Servo Systems	p. 1528
Conclusions and Outlook	p. 1541
References	p. 1542
Nanorobotics Bradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong	p. 1545
Overview of Nanorobotics	p. 1546
Actuation at Nanoscales	p. 1547
Nanorobotic Manipulation Systems	p. 1549
Nanorobotic Assembly	p. 1555
Applications	p. 1563
References	p. 1566
Micro/Nanodevice Reliability
Nanotribology and Materials Characterization of MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/BioNEMS Materials and Devices	p. 1575
Introduction	p. 1576
Tribological Studies of Silicon and Related Materials	p. 1593
Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS	p. 1600
Tribological Studies of Biological Molecules on Silicon-Based Surfaces and of Coated Polymer Surfaces	p. 1606
Nanopatterned Surfaces	p. 1611
Component-Level Studies	p. 1616
Conclusion	p. 1627
A Appendix Micro/Nanofabrication Methods	p. 1628
References	p. 1631
Experimental Characterization Techniques for Micro/Nanoscale Devices	p. 1639
Motivation	p. 1639
Applications Utilizing Dynamic MEMS/NEMS	p. 1640
Test/Characterization Techniques	p. 1640
Example: Characterizing an In-Plane MEMS Actuator	p. 1654
Design for Test	p. 1659
References	p. 1659
Failure Mechanisms in MEMS/NEMS Devices	p. 1663
Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms	p. 1663
Stiction and Charge-Related Failure Mechanisms	p. 1665
Creep, Fatigue, Wear, and Packaging-Related Failures	p. 1671
Conclusions	p. 1681
References	p. 1681
Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures	p. 1685
Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates	p. 1685
Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties	p. 1686
Measurements of Mechanical Properties	p. 1696
References	p. 1699
Thermo- and Electromechanical Behavior of Thin-Film Micro and Nanostructures	p. 1703
Thermomechanics of Multilayer Thin-Film Structures	p. 1705
Electromechanics of Thin-Film Structures	p. 1726
Summaryand Topics not Covered	p. 1744
References	p. 1745
High Volume Manufacturing and Field Stability of MEMS Products	p. 1749
Manufacturing Strategy	p. 1752
Robust Manufacturing	p. 1754
Stable Field Performance	p. 1769
References	p. 1772
Packaging and Reliability Issues in Micro/Nano Systems	p. 1777
Introduction to Micro-/Nano-Electromechanical (MEMS)/(NEMS) Packaging	p. 1777
Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications	p. 1783
Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability	p. 1791
Future Trends and Summary	p. 1798
References	p. 1799
Technological Convergence and Governing Nanotechnology
Technological Convergence from the Nanoscale	p. 1807
Nanoscience Synergy	p. 1807
Dynamics of Convergence from the Nanoscale	p. 1810
Ethical, Legal and Social Implications	p. 1811
Transformative Synthesis	p. 1814
Cultural Implications of Convergence	p. 1816
Conclusion	p. 1819
References	p. 1819
Governing Nanotechnology: Social, Ethical and Human Issues	p. 1823
Social Science Background	p. 1823
Human Impacts of Nanotechnology	p. 1827
Regulating Nanotechnology	p. 1830
The Cultural Contextfor Nanotechnology	p. 1832
Conclusions	p. 1835
References	p. 1835
Acknowledgements	p. 1841
About the Authors	p. 1845
Subject Index	p. 1877
Table of Contents provided by Publisher. All Rights Reserved.