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Psychologist Anne Campbell argues that gene-level discoveries about the X and Y chromosomes give insight into differences between females and males. Richard Wilson suggests that environmental and social factors explain gendered behavior better than the genetic code.
Clinical psychologist David B. Cohen examines the relatively more important role of genetic and other biological factors over parental influences on gender identity and discusses the John/Joan case as an example. Associate professor of English Bernice L. Hausman examines the narratives or stories told about the John/Joan case to reveal biases and oversights about nonbiological contributions to John/Joan’s experiences.
Randy Thornhill and Craig T. Palmer use evolutionary biology to explain the biological causes of rape. Clinical psychologist Mary P. Koss highlights the complexity of any causal analysis of rape and concludes that no theory emphasizing a single cause is adequate.
Julia T. Wood examines how gender images of masculinity and femininity result in different communication styles in women and men. Laura L. Winn and Donald L. Rubin report on a study that demonstrated that contextual factors were more important than biological sex in stylistic features of writing.
Social psychologist Shelley E. Taylor and her colleagues, in a review of the literature, conclude that there is an evolutionarily based biobehavioral mechanism that underlies women tend-and-befriend response to stress. Social psychologist John T. Cacioppo and his colleagues argue for the value of examining the influence of social influences on biological processes rather than vice versa. In numerous examples they document the effects of the context on fundamental biological processes.
Social psychologist Jacquelyn W. White and her colleagues conclude, based on a review of the literature, that girls and women are highly likely to be the targets of male aggression and are less likely to use physical aggression than men due to different developmental experiences. Social psychologist Richard B. Felson argues that aggression is related to physical strength and a general tendency toward violence, not male domination, and that there is not an epidemic of violence against women.
Dena S. Davis argues that fetal sex selection is an ethical issue because it is really about gender selection that promotes traditional stereotypes and can interfere with a child’s right to an open future. Rosamond Rhodes describes the acceptable scope of fetal sex selection, as well as professional responsibilities of practitioners of reproductive medicine.
Sarah S. McLanahan and Marcia J. Carlson examine the negative effects of father-absence in children’s lives and offer suggestions for how to increase father involvement. Louise B. Silverstein and Carl F. Auerbach are the founders and co-directors of the Yeshiva Fatherhood Project. They conclude that neither mothers nor fathers are essential to children’s well-being; rather, children can thrive in a number of different family structures.
Psychologist Lawrence A. Kurdek reports on a longitudinal study comparing gay and lesbian partners with partners from heterosexual married couples with children. For half of the comparisons there were no differences and for 78% of the comparisons for which differences were found, gay or lesbian partners functioned better than heterosexual partners. Peter Sprigg, director of the Center for Marriage and Family Studies at the Family Research Council, outlines why non-heterosexual relationships do not carry with them the same validity as heterosexual relationships, and therefore should not be allowed to marry legally. He states that the rights same-sex couples maintain that they would get by being able to marry are rights that are already available to them.
The American Psychological Associations Council of Representatives adopted this resolution that was drafted by a task force of expert psychologists. The resolution, based on a thorough review of the literature, opposes any discrimination based on sexual orientation concludes that children reared by same-sex parents benefit from legal ties to each parent. Timothy J. Dailey, senior research fellow at the Center for Marriage and Family Studies, provides an overview of state laws that pertain to adoption by lesbian and gay parents. He points to studies showing that children do much better in family settings that include both a mother and a father, and that the sexual behaviors same-sex parents engage in make them, by definition, inappropriate role models for children.
Steven Pinker reviews arguments supporting the claim that there is a biological basis for gender differences in math and science. Elizabeth Spelke argues that the under-representation of women in the sciences is due to environmental factors.
June O’Neill suggests that the gender gap is largely due to nondiscriminatory factors, most notably those associated with women’s choices due to the division of labor in the home. Hilary M. Lips documents the continuing gender gap in wages and argues that a continuing undervaluing of women’s work due to stereotypes and prejudice maintains the wage gap.
Author Sarah Drescher contends that welfare reforms have inadequately addressed gender inequalities and have reinforced sex-segregated work and family roles, thereby worsening the "feminization of poverty." Hilda Kahne makes the argument that incomplete education and few training programs makes it more difficult for low-wage single mothers to raise their earnings.
Gerald Mackie takes a scientific approach to challenge the argument that female genital cutting is not always harmful, citing multiple examples of physical and psychological harm. Carla M. Obermeyer argues that a lack of research precludes us from fully understanding female circumcision and claiming that it is responsible for a variety of harmful health outcomes. She includes examples of no harm.
Bridget E. Maher argues that far too much funding has gone into programs that teach young people about sexuality and contraception—programs that she concludes are ineffective. Debra Hauser, in an evaluation of numerous abstinence-only-until-marriage programs that received funding under the Title V Social Security Act, concludes that they show few short-term benefits and no lasting, positive effects; rather such programs may actually worsen sexual health outcomes.
Elizabeth Shef conducted an ethnographic study that suggests that engaging in nontraditional relationships can help women reject sexual objectification and enlarge their sexual subjectivity. Cheryl B. Travis and her colleagues argue that society’s social construction of beauty has so deeply affected the socialization of girls that it plays a key role in controlling women’s sexuality. Their analysis of the impact of the beauty myth calls into question whether any woman can truly have a sexual self that has not been shaped by societal ideals.
Sonja Grover argues that any sexual contact with a minor by an adult under any circumstances violates the human rights of a child. Bruce Rind suggests that it is important to distinguish adult-child from adult-adolescent sexual relationships, suggesting that the latter may not be harmful because adolescents are likely to interpret the relationship differently than children.
Torbjörn Bäckström describe the relationship between hormones and premenstrual syndrome, also discussing the effects on the brain and various treatment options. Joan C. Chrisler argues that PMS is a culturally constructed disorder whose symptoms are tied to cultural meanings and social norms. PMS, as understood in U.S. women, does not manifest itself the same in all cultures.
Robert L. Spitzer reports on a study that identified a subgroup of gay men and lesbians who reported at least some minimal change in some aspect of their sexual orientation. Helena M Carlson and Lisa M. Diamond, in separate critiques, note numerous flaws in Spitzer’s methods and conceptualization of sexual desire. Both conclude that his conclusions are flawed.
The DSM-IV, the official manual of the American Psychiatric Association, presents the diagnostic criteria that must be met in order for a person to be diagnosed with a gender identity disorder. Carla Golden argues that the diagnosis of gender identity disorder is problematic. It is the socially constructed nature of sex and gender that has problematized some forms of gender expression while privileging others.
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