Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, 3rd Edition

by Richard S. Figliola; Donald E. Beasley

• ISBN13: 9780471350835
• ISBN10: 0471350834
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-01-01
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

This textbook provides an in-depth introduction to the theory of engineering measurements, measurement system performance, and instrumentation. It offers an extended discussion of sampling concepts, analog-to-digital interfacing, signal conditioning and data acquisition.

Table of Contents

Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods	1	(34)
Introduction	1	(1)
General Measurement System	2	(2)
Experimental Test Plan	4	(9)
Variables	5	(1)
Parameters	6	(1)
Noise and Interference	6	(2)
Random Tests	8	(4)
Replication and Repetition	12	(1)
Concomitant Methods	13	(1)
Calibration	13	(8)
Static Calibration	13	(1)
Dynamic Calibration	14	(1)
Static Sensitivity	14	(1)
Range	15	(1)
Accuracy	15	(1)
Precision and Bias Errors	15	(3)
Sequential Test	18	(1)
Random Test	18	(3)
Standards	21	(6)
Basic Dimensions and Their Units	22	(2)
Derived Units	24	(1)
Force	24	(1)
Other Units	24	(1)
Electrical Dimensions	25	(1)
Hierarchy of Standards	26	(1)
Test Standards	27	(1)
Presenting Data	27	(1)
Rectangular Coordinate Format	27	(1)
Semilog Coordinate Format	27	(1)
Full-Log Coordinate Format	28	(1)
Summary	28	(7)
References	28	(1)
Nomenclature	28	(1)
Problems	29	(6)
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals	35	(35)
Introduction	35	(1)
Input--Output Signal Concepts	35	(4)
Classification of Waveforms	36	(2)
Signal Waveforms	38	(1)
Signal Analysis	39	(5)
Effects of Signal-Averaging Period	41	(1)
DC Offset	42	(2)
Signal Amplitude and Frequency	44	(13)
Periodic Signals	45	(2)
Frequency Analysis	47	(2)
Fourier Series and Coefficients	49	(2)
Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Periods	51	(6)
Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum	57	(7)
Discrete Fourier Transform	59	(5)
Summary	64	(6)
References	64	(1)
Nomenclature	64	(1)
Problems	65	(5)
Measurement System Behavior	70	(39)
Introduction	70	(1)
General Model for a Measurement System	70	(4)
Dynamic Measurements	70	(2)
Measurement System Model	72	(2)
Special Cases of the General System Model	74	(22)
Zero-Order Systems	74	(2)
First-Order Systems	76	(11)
Second-Order Systems	87	(9)
Transfer Functions	96	(2)
Phase Linearity	98	(1)
Multiple-Function Inputs	99	(2)
Coupled Systems	101	(3)
Summary	104	(5)
References	104	(1)
Nomenclature	104	(1)
Problems	105	(4)
Probability and Statistics	109	(40)
Introduction	109	(1)
Statistical Measurement Theory	110	(6)
Probability Density Functions	110	(6)
Infinite Statistics	116	(5)
Finite Statistics	121	(5)
Standard Deviation of the Means	123	(2)
Pooled Statistics	125	(1)
Chi-Squared Distribution	126	(5)
Precision Interval in a Sample Variance	127	(2)
Goodness-of-Fit Test	129	(2)
Regression Analysis	131	(7)
Least-Squares Regression Analysis	132	(6)
Data Outlier Detection	138	(2)
Number of Measurements Required	140	(3)
Summary	143	(6)
References	143	(1)
Nomenclature	143	(1)
Problems	144	(5)
Uncertainty Analysis	149	(43)
Introduction	149	(1)
Measurement Errors	149	(2)
Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis	151	(4)
Combining Elemental Errors: RSS method	152	(1)
Design-Stage Uncertainty	152	(3)
Error Sources	155	(2)
Calibration Errors	156	(1)
Data-Acquisition Errors	156	(1)
Data-Reduction Errors	157	(1)
Bias and Precision Errors	157	(2)
Bias Error	157	(1)
Precision Error	158	(1)
Uncertainty Analysis: Error Propagation	159	(4)
Propagation of Error	159	(4)
Advanced-Stage and Single-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis	163	(7)
Zero-Order Uncertainty	164	(1)
Higher-Order Uncertainty	164	(1)
Nth-Order Uncertainty	165	(5)
Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis	170	(13)
Propagation of Elemental Errors	170	(6)
Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result	176	(7)
Summary	183	(9)
References	183	(1)
Nomenclature	184	(1)
Problems	184	(8)
Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements	192	(43)
Introduction	192	(1)
Analog Devices: Current Measurements	192	(4)
Direct Current	192	(3)
Alternating Current	195	(1)
Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements	196	(5)
Analog Meters	197	(1)
Oscilloscope	197	(2)
Potentiometer	199	(2)
Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements	201	(7)
Ohmmeter Circuits	201	(2)
Bridge Circuits	203	(5)
Loading Errors and Impedance Matching	208	(5)
Loading Errors for A Voltage Dividing Circuit	209	(1)
Interstage Loading Errors	210	(3)
Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers	213	(3)
Analog Signal Conditioning: Special Purpose Circuits	216	(5)
Analog Voltage Comparator	216	(1)
Sample and Hold Circuit	217	(1)
Charge Amplifier	217	(2)
Current Loop: 4--20 mA	219	(1)
Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits	219	(2)
Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters	221	(5)
Butterworth Filter Design	222	(3)
Bessel Filter Design	225	(1)
Active Filters	226	(1)
Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires	226	(3)
Ground and Ground Loops	227	(1)
Shields	228	(1)
Connecting Wires	229	(1)
Summary	229	(6)
References	230	(1)
Nomenclature	230	(1)
Problems	230	(5)
Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition	235	(48)
Introduction	235	(1)
Sampling Concepts	235	(9)
Sample Rate	236	(2)
Alias Frequencies	238	(3)
Amplitude Ambiguity	241	(2)
Selecting Sample Rate and Data Number	243	(1)
Digital Devices: Bits and Words	244	(2)
Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals	246	(1)
Voltage Measurements	246	(12)
Digital-to-Analog Converter	247	(1)
Analog-to-Digital Converter	248	(9)
Digital Voltmeters	257	(1)
Data-Acquisition Systems	258	(1)
Data-Acquisition System Components	259	(6)
Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification	259	(3)
Analog Multiplexers	262	(1)
A/D Converters	262	(1)
D/A Converters	262	(1)
Digital Input-Output	262	(1)
Central Processing Unit: Microprocessor	263	(1)
Memory	263	(1)
Central Bus	264	(1)
Buffers	265	(1)
Analog Input-Output Communication	265	(5)
Data-Acquisition Boards	265	(2)
Single- and Differential-Ended Connections	267	(2)
Special Signal Conditioning Modules	269	(1)
Data-Acquisition Triggering	269	(1)
Data Transfer	270	(1)
Digital Input-Output Communication	270	(8)
Serial Communications	271	(2)
Universal Serial Bus	273	(1)
Parallel Communications	274	(4)
Summary	278	(5)
References	278	(1)
Nomenclature	279	(1)
Problems	279	(4)
Temperature Measurements	283	(62)
Introduction	283	(1)
Historical Background	283	(1)
Temperature Standards and Definition	284	(3)
Fixed-Point Temperatures and Interpolation	284	(1)
Temperature Scales and Standards	285	(2)
Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion	287	(2)
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers	287	(1)
Bimetallic Thermometers	288	(1)
Electrical Resistance Thermometry	289	(13)
Resistance Temperature Detectors	289	(8)
Thermistors	297	(5)
Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement	302	(20)
Seebeck Effect	303	(1)
Peltier Effect	304	(1)
Thomson Effect	304	(1)
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws	305	(1)
Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples	306	(1)
Thermocouple Standards	307	(3)
Thermocouple Voltage Measurement	310	(6)
Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits	316	(2)
Data Acquisition Considerations	318	(4)
Radiative Temperature Measurements	322	(5)
Radiation Fundamentals	322	(1)
Radiation Detectors	323	(2)
Radiative Temperature Measurements	325	(1)
Optical Fiber Thermometers	326	(1)
Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement	327	(10)
Insertion Errors	327	(8)
Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement	335	(2)
Summary	337	(8)
References	337	(1)
Nomenclature	338	(1)
Problems	339	(6)
Pressure and Velocity Measurements	345	(44)
Introduction	345	(1)
Pressure Concepts	345	(3)
Pressure Reference Instruments	348	(8)
McLeod Gauge	348	(1)
Barometer	349	(1)
Manometers	350	(4)
Deadweight Testers	354	(2)
Pressure Transducers	356	(8)
Bourdon Tube	357	(1)
Bellows and Capsule	358	(2)
Diaphragms	360	(4)
Pressure Transducer Calibration	364	(2)
Static Calibration	364	(1)
Dynamic Calibration	364	(2)
Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids	366	(3)
Total Pressure Measurement	367	(1)
Static Pressure Measurement	368	(1)
Design and Installation: Transmission Effects	369	(5)
Gases	370	(2)
Liquids	372	(1)
Heavily Damped Systems	373	(1)
Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems	374	(9)
Pitot--Static Pressure Probe	375	(2)
Thermal Anemometry	377	(2)
Doppler Anemometry	379	(3)
Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods	382	(1)
Laser Doppler Anemometers	383	(1)
Summary	383	(6)
References	383	(1)
Nomenclature	384	(1)
Problems	384	(5)
Flow Measurements	389	(40)
Introduction	389	(1)
Historical Comments	389	(1)
Flow Rate Concepts	390	(2)
Volume Flow Rate Through Velocity Determination	392	(2)
Pressure Differential Meters	394	(18)
Obstruction Meters	394	(3)
Orifice Meter	397	(2)
Venturi Meter	399	(2)
Flow Nozzles	401	(4)
Sonic Nozzles	405	(2)
Obstruction Meter Selection	407	(4)
Laminar Flow Elements	411	(1)
Insertion Volume Flow Meters	412	(7)
Electromagnetic Flow Meters	413	(1)
Vortex Shedding Meters	414	(2)
Rotameters	416	(2)
Turbine Meters	418	(1)
Positive-Displacement Meters	418	(1)
Mass Flow Meters	419	(4)
Thermal Flow Meter	419	(1)
Coriolis Flow Meter	420	(3)
Flow Meter Calibration and Standards	423	(2)
Summary	425	(4)
References	425	(1)
Nomenclature	425	(1)
Problems	426	(3)
Strain Measurement	429	(37)
Introduction	429	(1)
Stress and Strain	429	(3)
Resistance Strain Gauges	432	(6)
Metallic Gauges	432	(4)
Semiconductor Strain Gauges	436	(2)
Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits	438	(4)
Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement	442	(12)
The Multiple Gauge Bridge	442	(1)
Bridge Constant	443	(2)
Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation	445	(5)
Construction and Installation	450	(1)
Analysis of Strain Gauge Data	450	(1)
Signal Conditioning	451	(2)
Uncertainties in Multichannel Measurements	453	(1)
Optical Strain Measuring Techniques	454	(6)
Basic Characteristics of Light	455	(1)
Photoelastic Measurement	456	(1)
Moire Methods	457	(3)
Summary	460	(6)
References	460	(1)
Nomenclature	461	(1)
Problems	461	(5)
Metrology, Motion, Force, and Power Measurements	466	(43)
Introduction	466	(1)
Dimensional Measurements: Metrology	466	(8)
Historical Perspective	466	(1)
Principles of Linear Measurement	467	(6)
Optical Methods	473	(1)
Displacement Measurements	474	(3)
Potentiometers	474	(1)
Linear Variable Differential Transformers	474	(3)
Measurement of Mass	477	(5)
Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration	482	(7)
Seismic Transducer	482	(6)
Transducers for Shock and Vibration Measurement	488	(1)
Velocity Measurements	489	(7)
Linear Velocity Measurements	489	(1)
Velocity from Displacement or Acceleration	489	(3)
Moving Coil Transducers	492	(1)
Angular Velocity Measurements	492	(4)
Force Measurement	496	(4)
Load Cells	496	(4)
Torque Measurements	500	(2)
Measurement of Torque on Rotating Shafts	501	(1)
Mechanical Power Measurements	502	(2)
Rotational Speed, Torque, and Shaft Power	502	(1)
Cradled Dynamometers	503	(1)
Summary	504	(5)
References	506	(1)
Nomenclature	506	(1)
Problems	506	(3)
Appendix A: A Guide for Technical Writing	509	(7)
Appendix B: Property Data and Conversion Factors	516	(7)
Glossary	523	(8)
Index	531