Titanium

by Lutjering, G.; Williams, J. C.

• ISBN13: 9783540429906
• ISBN10: 3540429905
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-09-01
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

This comprehensive summary of the current state of the art of titanium addresses, in varying levels of detail, all aspects of titanium, including: basic characteristics and physical metallurgy, the extractive metallurgy, the various production processes, the correlations between processing, microstructure and properties, and all aspects of applications including economic ones. The book covers commercial pure (CP) titanium, alpha + beta and beta alloys, as well as titanium based intermetallics and titanium matrix composites. Richly illustrated with more than 300 figures, this compendium takes a conceptual approach to the physical metallurgy and applications of titanium, making it suitable as a reference and tutorial for materials scientists and engineers.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction	1	(12)
1.1 Purpose of the Book	1	(1)
1.2 History of Titanium	2	(1)
1.3 Emergence as Commercial Material	2	(2)
1.4 Titanium Industry Status	4	(4)
1.5 Traditional and Emerging Applications	8	(5)
2 Fundamental Aspects	13	(38)
2.1 Basic Properties	13	(1)
2.2 Crystal Structure	14	(1)
2.3 Elastic Properties	14	(3)
2.4 Deformation Modes	17	(4)
2.4.1 Slip Modes	17	(3)
2.4.2 Deformation Twinning	20	(1)
2.5 Phase Diagrams	21	(6)
2.6 Phase Transformations	27	(4)
2.6.1 Martensite Transformation	27	(3)
2.6.2 Nucleation and Diffusional Growth	30	(1)
2.7 Alloy Classification	31	(3)
2.8 Basic Hardening Mechanisms	34	(6)
2.8.1 Hardening of the Alpha Phase	35	(1)
2.8.2 Hardening of the Beta Phase	36	(4)
2.9 Basic Physical and Chemical Properties	40	(11)
2.9.1 Diffusion	43	(2)
2.9.2 Corrosion Behavior	45	(3)
2.9.3 Oxidation	48	(3)
3 Technological Aspects	51	(98)
3.1 Sponge Production	51	(6)
3.2 Melting	57	(13)
3.2.1 Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR)	58	(4)
3.2.2 Cold Hearth Melting (CHM)	62	(4)
3.2.3 Melt Related Defects	66	(4)
3.3 Primary Processing	70	(7)
3.4 Shaping into Components	77	(7)
3.4.1 Forging	77	(4)
3.4.2 Ring Rolling	81	(2)
3.4.3 Metal Removal (Machining)	83	(1)
3.5 Near Net Shape Processes	84	(18)
3.5.1 Casting	85	(4)
3.5.2 Powder Metallurgy	89	(4)
3.5.3 Laser Forming	93	(2)
3.5.4 Conventional Sheet Forming	95	(2)
3.5.5 Superplastic Forming and Diffusion Bonding	97	(5)
3.6 Conventional Joining Methods	102	(11)
3.6.1 Fusion Welding	102	(7)
3.6.2 Friction Welding	109	(4)
3.7 Surface Treatment	113	(10)
3.7.1 Shot Peening	114	(4)
3.7.2 Laser Shock Processing	118	(3)
3.7.3 Chemical Milling	121	(2)
3.7.4 Electrochemical Machining	123	(1)
3.8 Inspection Methods	123	(11)
3.8.1 Ultrasonic Inspection	124	(5)
3.8.2 Radiographic Inspection	129	(1)
3.8.3 Surface Etching Inspection	129	(3)
3.8.4 Eddy Current Inspection	132	(1)
3.8.5 Dye Penetrant Inspection	133	(1)
3.8.6 Surface Replication	134	(1)
3.9 Characterization Methods	134	(15)
3.9.1 Light Microscopy	135	(4)
3.9.2 Electron Microscopy	139	(7)
3.9.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy	139	(4)
3.9.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy	143	(3)
3.9.3 X-ray Diffraction	146	(1)
3.9.4 Mechanical Testing	147	(2)
4 Commercially Pure (CP) Titanium and Alpha Alloys	149	(28)
4.1 Processing and Microstructure	151	(8)
4.1.1 Material Processing	151	(6)
4.1.2 Processing into Components	157	(2)
4.2 Microstructure, Composition, and Properties	159	(13)
4.3 Properties and Applications	172	(5)
5. Alpha + Beta Alloys	177	(56)
5.1 Processing and Microstructure	177	(13)
5.1.1 Fully Lamellar Microstructures	177	(5)
5.1.2 Bi-Modal Microstructures	182	(4)
5.1.3 Fully Equiaxed Microstructures	186	(4)
5.2 Microstructure and Mechanical Properties	190	(34)
5.2.1 Fully Lamellar Microstructures	192	(9)
5.2.2 Bi-Modal Microstructures	201	(7)
5.2.3 Fully Equiaxed Microstructures	208	(4)
5.2.4 Effect of Aging and Oxygen Content	212	(5)
5.2.5 Effect of Secondary Alpha in Beta Phase	217	(3)
5.2.6 Effect of Crystallographic Texture	220	(4)
5.3 Properties and Application	224	(9)
6 High Temperature Alloys	233	(14)
6.1 Processing and Microstructure	234	(1)
6.2 Microstructure and Mechanical Properties	235	(9)
6.3 Properties and Application	244	(3)
7 Beta Alloys	247	(42)
7.1 Processing and Microstructure	247	(14)
7.1.1 Beta Annealed Microstructures	248	(6)
7.1.2 Beta Processed Microstructures	254	(2)
7.1.3 Through-Transus Processed Microstructures	256	(3)
7.1.4 Bi-Modal Microstructures	259	(2)
7.2 Microstructure and Mechanical Properties	261	(20)
7.2.1 Effect of Processing Route	263	(11)
7.2.1.1 Tensile Properties	263	(3)
7.2.1.2 Fatigue Properties	266	(6)
7.2.1.3 Fracture Toughness	272	(2)
7.2.2 Effect of Age-Hardening	274	(5)
7.2.3 Effect of Beta Grain Size	279	(2)
7.3 Properties and Application	281	(8)
8 Titanium Based Intermetallics	289	(24)
8.1 Alloying and Microstructure	290	(10)
8.2 Microstructure and Properties	300	(8)
8.2.1 Alpha 2 and Orthorhombic Alloys	301	(5)
8.2.2 Gamma Alloys	306	(2)
8.3 Applications	308	(5)
9 Titanium Matrix Composites	313	(16)
9.1 Processing	313	(5)
9.2 Properties	318	(7)
9.2.1 Tensile Properties	318	(3)
9.2.2 Fatigue Properties	321	(2)
9.2.3 Creep Properties	323	(2)
9.3 Applications	325	(4)
10 Special Properties and Applications of Titanium	329	(28)
10.1 Superconductivity	329	(5)
10.2 Burn Resistance	334	(3)
10.2.1 Phenomenology of Titanium Fires	335	(1)
10.2.2 Alloy Selection for Fire Risk Mitigation	336	(1)
10.3 Hydrogen Storage	337	(2)
10.4 Shape Memory Effect	339	(6)
10.4.1 Phenomenology of the Shape Memory Effect	339	(4)
10.4.2 Applications of Shape Memory Alloys	343	(2)
10.5 Biomedical Applications	345	(4)
10.6 Automotive Applications	349	(3)
10.7 Sports Related Applications	352	(2)
10.8 Appearance Related Applications	354	(3)
References	357	(12)
Index	369