Chapter 1: An Introduction to Transnational Social Work

Rich Furman, Nalini Negi, and Rommel "Bombie" Salvador

When you first read the title Transnational Social Work, what came to mind? It is likely you may not have ever heard or seen these words connected together; indeed, the notion of a transnational social work is very, very new. Chances are that if your interest was piqued, it was out of a sense of fascination with globalization and internationalization in social work. When the editors of this volume first published an article on the topic only two years ago, it was one of the few articles that explored the impact of transnationalism and transmigration on social work in the United States (Furman and Negi 2007). Many articles deal with the effects of globalization and international social work, but the relationship between transnationality and the profession of social work has not been well explored.

An exploration of transnational life and social work seems to have appeared first in the literature in the United States in 1993 (Midgley 1993). The term "transnational social work" itself may have been first used in the United States by James Midgley (2001) in a groundbreaking article that explored key issues in international social work at the beginning of the new millennium. Midgley explores key conceptual discrepancies in social work regarding globalization and international social work. He contrasts the work of internationalists, some of whom wish for greater integration of key functions of governments and others who wish for the abolition of the nation-state, with those who believe the nation state will remain a central organizing mechanism of social and political life. He notes the difficulty in bridging these two positions yet stresses the importance of such bridges. We believe that the development of transnational social work, a practice that can deftly move across nation-state boundaries, be culturally competent and responsive on a local level, yet recognize the continued strength and centrality of nations, could be just such a bridge. Such a practice must rethink, reconceptualize, and expand the adage "think globally, act locally," to "think globally and locally, act globally and locally."

Over the last few years, interest has expanded about how the interconnectedness of global institutions (transnationalism) and the movement of people, resources, and ideas back and forth across nation-state boundaries (transmigration) have influenced, and may be influenced by, the profession of social work. Still, little is known about this relationship. This book is an attempt to begin discussions and dialogues about the possibility of a transnational social work practice. First, however, we would like to mention the point of view a scholar who is cautious about the development of global and international social work, particularly by individuals from the wealthy nations of the world. Gray (2005) openly questions whether such innovations are merely a means by which social work may impose Western views onto those from other cultural/nation-state contexts. Perhaps, indeed, we are merely engaging in a more humanistic form of imperialism. We hope that this is not the case, yet this critique provides us an important lens through which we must vigilantly question our efforts toward developing international and transnational models of practice. We do believe, however, that the fact that more and more people are living transnational lives provides with us the ethical and moral imperative to help develop social work models and methods to respond to their needs. This is the raison d'être for this collection.

The book you have opened is concerned with the way social work as a profession has responded to the realities of globalization. While many books have addressed the topic of international social work, little has been written about the ways that social work has changed and must change in response to the manner in which globalization has altered the day-to-day life of humankind in the opening decades of the new millennium. The rapid pace of social change and transformation will mean that social work will change in ways that we can now only begin to imagine. The authors of the various chapters of this book have adopted the lens of globalization to present an exploration of some of the key issues regarding how that phenomenon, and in particular transnationalism and transmigration, affect how we provide social work services to some of the most vulnerable and poorest people on the planet.

Globalization has altered the lives of people forever. Social structures, organizational contexts, and even day-to-day personal relationships and decisions are now situated within a global context. There are several key causes for this phenomenon: the dramatic advancement of technologies that have allowed faster access to global networks, opportunities, and activities; the interconnectedness of global economic and social institutions; and unprecedented movements of people across nation-state boundaries. The recent economic crisis underscores the interdependence of nation-states as the downturn of financial markets could be felt from Australia to Zimbabwe. Subsequently, the adage "think globally and act locally" has taken on an expanded meaning in this new millennium, and with it new opportunities and challenges for social service practitioners. These changes are often unsettling but represent exciting opportunities for innovation.

The history of social work is the history of a profession that responds to shifts and changes in social structures. Social work has been the profession that has helped the poorest and most vulnerable people adapt to major social shifts, such as the industrial revolution and the Great Depression. Not always as focused on social change and transformation as some would wish, social work certainly has responded to those in need at times of need. This notion of social responsiveness is a core attribute of the profession and must be one of its core values as we confront global changes the likes of which the profession and the world have never before witnessed.

It is therefore surprising that little has been written about the effects of globalization on social workers, social work agencies, or the way social work services are provided (Jones 2002; Ley 2004; Wilding 1997), despite increased recognition of the global scope of social problems (Link, Ramanathan, and Asamoah 1999; Stoesz, Guzzetta, and Lusk 1999). In fact, much of the literature on globalization has focused on the business and political aspects of globalization (Adler and Bartholomew 1992; Homburg et al. 2002; Jones 2002; Kastoryano 2000). This paucity of discourse, empirical research, and practice and policy dialogues is glaring in light of a 2009 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that indicates that forty-two million people were forcibly displaced due to conflict and persecution. What we see is that the nature of the nation-state is changing; people's lives are less bound to the traditional structures and institutions of capitalism and postindustrial society. It is then understandable that sociologists and other scholars have begun to redefine nation-state borders from rigid boundaries to intersocietal and supraterritorial spaces as a substantial and growing number of people across the world are leading lives that transcend national boundaries or that are transnational in nature (Sassen 2002).

Globalization clearly has not merely changed the manner in which business and governments function; it has had a profound impact on the daily lives of the poor, and has resulted in the need for the transformation of social work services. In this introduction we explore several important issues that provide a context for the rest of this book, including transnationalism and transmigration, and the relationship between transmigration and social work practice. We mention some potential organizational structures that can help social workers think through ways of reorganizing social work practice, which has always been situated within the context of the social agency. In this discussion, we take an expanded view of what can and may constitute a social work agency, as social work leaders will need to think outside the box in responding to global challenges. Finally, we outline the organization of the rest of the book and introduce subsequent chapters.

The Nature of Transnationalism and Transmigration

There is no doubt that globalization and its associated advances in technology and electronic communication, as well as fast and cheap transportation, have ushered in a new era in human experience. These advances have allowed people like Raul, a Mexican migrant day laborer, to live his psychosocial life in a space that defies the rigid constructions of nation-state; a space that is neither the United States nor Mexico, but simultaneously both. Raul's migration to the United States, as that of many others, was precipitated by economic forces, and although he crossed the border voluntarily, he was more than reluctant to leave his young family behind. To ensure that Raul is able to see his daughters grow, he exchanges video letters with his wife through a truck driver and friend who travels between both countries. Raul also undertakes the difficult and dangerous migration back and forth from Mexico to the United States to be able to see his family. Raul, as many uncounted and growing people in this world, is a transmigrant.

Transmigration is an altered condition of migration that is different from traditional migration. While immigrants and traditional migrants discontinue moving between nation-states with the elapse of time, transmigrants continuously engage in lives in different places, countries, and cultures due to mainly economic structures (Pries 2004). This transmigratory lifestyle can lead to multiple crossings of nation-state boundaries and a lack of a long-term residential base, which present a unique context for social work intervention. An understanding of the context of this emergent population's lives and the modifiable risk and protective factors present is paramount to being able to effectively provide culturally responsive services with this population.

Immigration and even transmigration are not new phenomena, as these extend back as far as trading diasporas of the Middle Ages, or farther (Foner 1997). However, transmigration is unique today due to globalization and rapidly growing and affordable communication technologies. This has allowed for many transmigrants to develop transnational identities and relationships, and to engage in activities that are truly transnational. For example, we find Chinese Malaysians, living in Singapore, who are active participants in two or more countries, challenging our traditional conceptions of "home." Similarly, Middle Eastern immigrants in Europe and Mexican and Canadian Asian transnationals have been documented living a large part of their emotional, social, economic, and political lives in both their place of origin and their place of settlement. Ensuring the well-being of these transnationals and their families becomes a societal concern for both their country of origin and their country of residence.

These transnational experiences challenge traditional notions related to migration, such as assimilation. As such, it is still unclear the degree to which transnational identities are or will be markedly different from those who have engaged in more traditional migratory patterns. For instance, it is relatively unknown how factors within the experience of transmigration may be associated with negative or positive physical and mental health outcomes. Specifically, while migrating back and forth across borders may be hypothesized to be a risk factor as it may hinder the development of social networks, the ability to be with family may serve as a buffer against adverse consequences.

Easier access to communication technologies has further allowed many transmigrants to be able not only to maintain connections to their families but also to participate in their communities through the use of inexpensive telephonic and computer technologies. For example, in many countries cybercafes are ubiquitous, making email and Internet chat affordable to many. One of the editors of this volume recently visited a cybercafe in a poor section of Medellín, Colombia. The computers were being used mostly by working-class Colombians who were communicating with friends and family across the country and around the globe.

Transmigrants have therefore created a context of transnationalism, or the notion that social, economic, and familial life now often transcends the constraints of nation-state boundaries. This is also true for a number of social workers and social work scholars who have become part of global networks, sharing information, ideas, and resources about this emerging practice.

Social Work and Transmigration

What is transnational social work? In truth, there is currently no clear definition proposed in the literature. We propose the following definition as a starting point. Transnational social work is an emerging field of practice that (a) is designed to serve transnational populations; (b) operates across nation-state boundaries, whether physically or through new technologies; and (c) is informed by and addresses complex transnational problems and dilemmas. In this book you will find examples of social work practice that meets one or more parts of this definition. As you think about examples of social work practice in your own work, you may find elements of the above three categories. However, you may also note that these practices have not been typically labeled as transnational. We believe that there is significant utility in engaging in and defining transnational social work practice as a new and emerging way of providing services.

But how is transnational social work different from international social work? We propose that given the transnational experiences of many people, international interventions and efforts that do not incorporate transnational practices fall short of addressing the complexities involved in the transnational context. Therefore, we believe that transnational social work practice is a more precise term for services that are meant for transnational individuals and not traditional migrants and immigrants, who often require one nation-state solutions. Transnational social work practice, by definition, requires the strategizing of solutions that incorporate two or more nation-states (depending on the experiences of the transmigrant) as well as working with social workers across borders to facilitate the well-being of this population.

As world economic structures become increasingly integrated, and as technological advances continue to become more advanced and more accessible to the poorest and most marginalized countries, communities, and people, social workers in different countries will find increasing need to collaborate on providing services. Even traditional barriers such as language may one day become far less difficult to transcend as voice recognition and translational software become more advanced and sophisticated. This book offers a framework to begin to conceptualize transnational social work practice.

Envisioning Organizational Structures for Transnational Social Work

Social work has always existed within the framework of the social work or human service agency (Lewis, Packard, and Lewis 2007). While a great deal has been written about the nature of organizational life (Gibelman and Furman 2008), little has been written on the actual possibilities for and types of agency structures. That is, most discussions of social work agencies explore issues such as the development of a mission statement and programmatic goals, the development of agency policy, the importance of personnel selection, and so on, but few include the structure of social welfare agencies. Here we briefly introduce the types of organizations that social work leaders may use when seeking to develop new organizations to meet the needs of transmigrants or others within a transnational context. This short discussion may provide readers with a lens through which to read subsequent chapters, thereby facilitating the development of novel and creative approaches.

In much of the twentieth century, organizations adopted one of four basic forms of organizational structure: simple, functional, divisional, and matrix (Dess, Lumpkin, and Eisner 2008). We also explore organizations without boundaries, which may incorporate elements from other forms. In this section, we describe each of these forms and provide illustrations where applicable.

Simple Structure

A simple organizational structure is one in which the founder (and/or a single manager) controls all activities of the organization and is intimately involved with most, if not all, decisions on a day-to-day basis. In organizations with simple structures, the staff essentially serves as an extension of this individual, performing necessary administrative tasks. Organizations that are small (having fifteen or fewer members or employees) tend to have simple structures.

Many small nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that function as social welfare agencies may start off as simple structures led by one individual but evolve into more complex structures over time. Additionally, NGOs and social service agencies tend to be less hierarchical than other organizations, so simple-structured NGOs may be dominated by a single individual in their early stages. The early life of many such organizations is often carried forward by the energy of a committed individual who is passionate about the issue that the organization focuses on. One example of such an organization is Bosnian Family (BOSFAM), an advocacy group founded during the Bosnian War (BOSFAM 2009). The organization's mission is to help refugee woman and their families achieve economic stability and empowerment. The organization was started by a Bosnian educator, Beba Hadzic, who worked tirelessly to build an organization and draw attention to the needs of Bosnian women. Her purposeful advocacy created connections between refugee communities and the outside world. Impatient with NGOs who were not serving their needs, she sought funding from OXFAM to start BOSFAM weavers, an initially small program that helped Bosnian women earn a living through traditional weaving. Originating with one individual, the group slowly grew in complexity and became a more formally structured organization. It now operates within a multicultural, complex transnational space in which Serb, Muslim, and Croat woman in Bosnia are viewed as possessing many personal and cultural strengths.

Functional Structure

A functional organizational structure is one in which the various activities and processes that the organization undertakes are clustered under major categories (called functions), such as accounting, marketing, operations, and human resource management. Organizations that tend to offer a single service (or a set of closely related services) in large volume generally adopt this functional structure by assigning individuals specialized tasks within these functional departments, each with a designated manager. In turn, these managers are accountable to a single individual: a president, chief executive officer, or some other person with a similar designation. Because of the clustering of individuals into departments, functional structures allow organizational members to specialize and develop their expertise in specific functional areas or processes.

Social welfare agencies frequently adopt this type of structure. A classic example is a child welfare agency, which provides child protective services to a large number of children in families, often within a specific geographical region. The strengths of such an agency structure lie in the focus of its mission, and usually its methods. Since the agency performs only one service, it is able to focus on doing what it does well. However, this strength may at times be a limitation as well. For instance, the agency may not be able to respond to unmet community needs that it identifies. Or given that it is extremely invested in providing a particular form of service, the agency may find it difficult to respond to research findings that suggest its methods are less effective than other approaches. Administrators of such programs must find ways of continually improving their quality.

Multidivisional Structure

Sometimes referred to as an M-form, a multidivisional structure is usually adopted by organizations that are responsible for multiple services, service markets, or geographic areas. Within each of these markets or areas (called divisions), organizational members and their respective responsibilities are clustered in terms of functional departments. In essence, then, a multidivisional structure is one that subsumes two or more functional structures, each of which is ultimately managed by a general manager or a divisional manager. In turn, these managers are accountable to the organization's president or chief executive. Having a multidivisional structure allows organizations that have grown to serve a broad range of geographic regions to have members dedicated to each region.

Multidivisional structures are perhaps the most common form of social welfare agency. For instance, an agency that begins as a community mental health center may expand to provide job training to its clients. Over time, it may begin to serve not only persistently mentally ill adults, but developmentally disabled children and adults as well. Each service may grow to have its own "mini-departments" in charge of tasks such as managing supplies or record keeping. In such a case, each service is likely to be administered by a program director who responds to a central administration that takes care of the business-related tasks for agency life.

Matrix Structure

Conceptually, a matrix structure is one in which individuals, tasks, and resources are organized around well-defined cross-functional projects. In a sense, it is a derivative of the functional structure, with the exception that individuals are accountable not only to their functional managers, but also to at least one other manager responsible for the project. Having a matrix structure allows organizational members to lend their time and expertise to, say, a specific project or region, while maintaining a link to their "home" functional department, such as operations or community relations.

In practice, many organizations operating across several national boundaries may adopt something akin to a matrix structure but may be essentially some form of hybrid of the functional and multidivisional structures. As an example, UNICEF performs its work using what appears to be a multidivisional structure operating in seven geographic regions around the world (e.g., Americas and the Caribbean, East Asia and the Pacific). Specific projects, each staffed by a particular set of individuals, might be implemented simultaneously across several geographic regions. As part of a matrix structure, these individuals coordinate not just with a central project director but also with a regional director. This type of structure holds great promise for transnational agencies, as they may have the flexibility needed to meet the needs of complex social problems.

Structures Without Boundaries

Organizational designs without boundaries have, as their core, elements of one or more of the traditional organizational structures. They may still be organized in terms of functional departments or geographic divisions but these are permeable enough to allow the easy flow of information between departments and the evolution of partnerships and relationships with individuals and groups external to the organization (Ashkenas 1999). Wrap-around programs are an example of this structure that may have important implications for social work practice with transnational populations (Furman et al. 2008). Originally designed as a method of coordinating children's mental health services, wrap-around services incorporate several key principles. First, the client or family is situated at the center of the helping process and is an integral part of service design. As such, wrap-around services are flexible and created based upon the needs of the client. With traditional social services, clients' needs must fit within a narrowly defined group of services. Wrap-around services are viewed as fluid and flexible. A constellation of flexible and creative services are combined, blended, and altered based upon the life contexts and cultural needs of the client. This highlights another key principle of wrap-around services: the centrality of cultural competence. Also, given that services must be crafted to meet the complex needs of clients, a structure must be created to integrate the skills, knowledge, and fiscal resources of a variety of organizations. In this sense, a wrap-around project is similar to a matrix or project-based agency yet incorporates the skills and resources of more than one organization and may focus on the needs of a family or small group rather than a project. Services are organized around an interagency, interdisciplinary planning meeting, which allows various providers to come together to discuss the needs of clients. In other words, the needs of individual clients or small groups drives the way services are provided, and organizational structures and services bend to meet client needs. In this model, organizations should develop means of pooling fiscal and other resources in order to maintain maximum flexibility. This often demands a level of organizational complexity and fluidity that is challenging to some organizations yet necessary in transnational contexts. Given that services to transnational migrants may necessitate the collaboration of organizations situated in various countries, new technologies that were discussed in chapter 9 can be of great value.

Organization of the Book

The work for this book began when Lauren Dockett, the social work editor for Columbia University Press, approached the two editors of this volume after a lecture on the topic at the Council for Social Work Education's annual program meeting. After we met with Lauren, we became intrigued by the idea of writing the first book on the topic. However, after careful consideration we realized that social work practice with transmigrants, and more globally a transnational social work, was far too new; very little has been written on the topic. What was needed was an edited volume that brought together the new and novel ideas from academics and practitioners alike. The following chapters are the result of several years of collaboration with many outstanding authors from different countries of the world. In this volume, you will find the work of social workers, social development theorists and practitioners, organizational theorists, and anthropologists. Authors represent North America, Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Europe and explore themes of transnational life and practice from around the world. Together, the chapters paint a picture of the current state of transnational social work and provide glimpses into the future of this emerging field of practice.

In putting together the chapters, we had two clear aims: first, to provide an understanding of transnational populations that are in need of services; and second, to explore services delivered to these populations. As such, we divide the book into two parts: the context of transmigration, and providing services to transmigrants. Part 1 is meant to provide an understanding regarding the context of transmigration, while part 2 provides practical strategies and real-life examples of transnational social work.

Transnational migrants often live in the shadows, even when compared to other immigrant groups who may have more stability due to a consistent, stable residential base, citizenship, and access to resources. Subsequently, transnational migrants "are often treated as a reserve of flexible labor, outside the protection of labor safety, health, and minimum wage and other standards, and easily deportable" (Taran 2000:7). Accordingly, Pries states that "transmigrants are not the new sovereign cosmopolitans who move freely and voluntarily between different locales, places, and opportunities without problems. Transmigrants adapt themselves to uncertain and unpredictable situations, learn to manage risks and live with them, and accumulate cultural and social capital" (31). In chapter 2, "Economic Globalization and Transnational Migration," Katherine van Wormer utilizes a radical anti-oppressive model to encourage a critical analysis of the process of transmigration. She discusses global economic policies, such as NAFTA, that have led to the disempowerment and displacement of people, thereby forcing them into leading transmigrant lives. She further explores the feminization of migration and discusses the heightened vulnerability of transmigrant women. Van Wormer concludes with practical strategies for both social work practitioners and students.

Research indicates that transmigrants are involved in transnational networks and activities that challenge traditional localized conceptions of single allegiance to nation-state and expand it to more globalized and transnational ways of being (Kastoryano 2000). Ariadna Mahon-Santos's chapter, "Transnational Social Networks and Social Development," looks at such networks through a focus on the development of hometown associations and the role of remittances in social development. Santos explicates both how remittances can have a positive influence through transnational linkages and how, unchecked, they can also foster dependency.

Chapter 4, "Environmental Decline and Climate Change," by Mishka Lysack, addresses the understanding that environmental degradation affects the lives of all people and requires a transnational solution. Lysack frames the issue from a social justice perspective by analyzing disparate access to natural resources by residents of developed and developing countries. He also provides innovative strategies for social workers interested in becoming involved in environmental justice issues. This is a timely topic, as the Council for Social Work Education's 2010 conference theme is "Sustainable Social Work." The profession is now beginning a dialogue about such essential topics.

Richard Estes's chapter, "Toward Sustainable Development," continues with the theme of sustainability. This chapter concludes part 1 by exploring definitions and conceptions of sustainable development and discussing major intervention strategies that social service providers can use. Sustainable development provides an excellent frame through which to view subsequent chapters, which explore the provision of services to various transmigrant populations.

In part 2 the various authors help us understand the important aspects of the lives of specific transmigrant populations and provide guidance into social work practice with them. The section begins with by exploring the problems of human trafficking, a transnational problem that has received increasing attention from the media and NGOs alike. In chapter 6, "Social Work with Victims of Transnational Human Trafficking," Miriam Potocky explores the complex dilemmas faced by victims and service providers alike, as well as the social justice issues implicated in serving this population. In chapter 7 Potocky also discusses one of the most salient issues to transnational social work, the provision of social services to refugee communities. Potocky delineates key issues in social work practice in both chapters and provides a vignette to bring these issues to life. This chapter connects traditional views of migration to more modern views of transmigration.

Gender equity remains one of the most important goals of social work and social development throughout the world. Many social work scholars and practitioners have focused on developing methods of social work practice designed to empower women and girls to take more central and meaningful roles within societies that have often blocked their achievement and inclusion. In chapter 8, "Transnational Men," Rich Furman and Erin Casey focus on the need to provide services to men in a culturally competent way as a means of achieving this aim, as well as to assist at-risk men in achieving other important psychosocial and person goals. The authors highlight programs designed to help men who have been victims and perpetrators of violence.

In chapter 9, "The Unintended Consequences of Migration," Brad Jokisch and David Kyle extend our understanding of transnational issues through the case of Antonio, a man from Ecuador living his life between two worlds. They discuss the effects of transmigration on Antonio and his family. By living in the complex transnational space that constitutes two separate worlds, transmigrants actually live within a newly created space that has not been sufficiently addressed in the social work practice literature.

Emmerentie Oliphant and Leon Holtzhausen analyze the case of transnational migrants in South Africa and the United Arab Emirates in chapter 10. They explore the similarities and differences of each country's social context and present the implications of these differences for social work practice. The focus of the chapter is on the day-to-day lived experiences of migrant workers and their implications for practice. The authors provide guidance for program design and intervention with other transnational populations. Their rich, textured approach leads the reader to appreciate the complexity and enormity of transnational social problems.

Transnational social service provision can be quite challenging, as it often involves the cooperation and coordination of two or more agencies or organizations across two or more nation-states. Accordingly, innovative and cost-effective strategies need to be implemented for practical use. In chapter 11 John McNutt explores the uses of the Internet for organizing, advocating, and building transnational solidarity groups for social change. He offers innovative strategies for both social work practice and education, providing a conceptual understanding that will allow social workers to contextualize and use new advances as they develop. For instance, over the next several years, improvements in voice recognition and translation software will allow social workers to communicate around the world without the need for translators.

In chapter 12 Brij Mohan and Julia Clark Prickett discuss specific strategies for macro intervention with this population. The authors present a critique of some of the current structures of the global economy and globalization and explore how these insights lead to a model of macrolevel transnational practice. The chapter presents an insightful discussion of the relationship between direct and macrolevel practice and explores the ramifications of culturally competent practice for community organization, advocacy, development, and other macrolevel approaches. The authors skillfully connect the worlds of international social development to social work practice.

In chapter 13, "Incorporating Transnational Social Work into the Curriculum," Susan Kidd Webster, Andrea-Teresa Arenas, and Sandy Magaña discuss how educational material on transmigration can be included in social work curricula to increase the profession's responsiveness to transmigrants. They explore social work education's traditional conceptualization of micro, mezzo, and macro practice and place it within the history of international social work and social work education. The authors present, as a case example, a transnational social work course that demonstrates the fit between transnational social work and the curriculum.

Finally, the book concludes with a chapter by Cynthia Hunter, Susannah Lepley, and Samuel Nickels exploring the new frontiers for social work practice with transnational migrants. Drawing on many of the themes found throughout the book, the authors look forward into the future of what social work practice with transnational populations might be. They provide a ground-level view perspective of the practitioners who are compelled to address migration, transmigration, assimilation, and services to refugees within the contest of service systems that have not yet begun to understand transnational realities nor integrate them into social work practice.

This last point, the lack of preparedness of many of our social welfare agencies and systems, is not to be understated. Social work practitioners, educators, administrators, social development specialists, and others who will encounter transnational populations often work within systems that have not yet begun to understand the ramifications of transnational life. Through this book we hope to add to the developing conversation about the needs of transnational populations within the profession of social work. This effort is a beginning, and we hope that readers will use the insights they have gained to develop new concepts and services for some of the world's most vulnerable and at-risk people: transmigrants. We hope that you are informed, encouraged, and impassioned to begin to navigate the issues explored here.

***

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The Context of Transmigration
An Introduction to Transnational Social Work	p. 3
Economic Globalization and Transnational Migration: An Anti-oppressive Framework	p. 20
Transnational Social Networks and Social Development: Hometown Associations in Mexico and the United States	p. 36
Environmental Decline and Climate Change: Fostering Social and Environmental Justice on a Warming Planet	p. 52
Toward Sustainable Development: From Theory to Praxis	p. 76
Services to Transmigrants
Social Work Practice with Victims of Transnational Human Trafficking	p. 111
Social Work Practice in Refugee Resettlement	p. 124
Transnational Men	p. 135
The Unintended Consequences of Migration: Exploring the Importance of Transnational Migration Between Ecuador and New York	p. 147
Migrant Workers in South Africa and the United Arab Emirates	p. 159
Using Internet Technology for Transnational Social Work Practice and Education	p. 176
Macro Social Work Practice with Transmigrants	p. 191
Incorporating Transnational Social Work into the Curriculum	p. 205
New Practice Frontiers: Current and Future Social Work with Transmigrants	p. 222
Index	p. 243
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

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