Understanding Criminal Procedure: Investigation

by Dressler, Joshua; Michaels, Alan C.

• ISBN13: 9780820569994
• ISBN10: 0820569992
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-11-01
• Publisher: Lexis Nexis Matthew Bender

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Introduction to Criminal Procedure
The Relationship of ``Criminal Law'' to ``Criminal Procedure''	1	(1)
Sources of Procedural Law	2	(3)
Formal Sources	2	(2)
Informal Sources: A Taste of Reality	4	(1)
Stages of a Criminal Prosecution	5	(9)
In General	5	(1)
Investigatory Stage	5	(1)
Search and Seizure	5	(1)
Interrogation	6	(1)
Identification Procedures	6	(1)
Arrest	7	(1)
Adjudicatory Stage	7	(1)
Issuance of a Complaint	7	(1)
Probable Cause (Gerstein) Hearing	7	(1)
First Appearance Before the Magistrate	8	(1)
Preliminary Hearings and Grand Jury Proceedings	9	(1)
Arraignment	10	(1)
Pretrial Motions	10	(1)
Trial	11	(1)
Sentencing and Post-Trial Proceedings	12	(1)
Sentencing	12	(1)
Appeal	12	(1)
Collateral Attack of a Conviction: Habeas Corpus	13	(1)
Studying Constitutional Law Cases	14	(7)
Read Concurring and Dissenting Opinions	14	(1)
Learn Case Names	15	(1)
Count Votes	15	(1)
Learn the Views of Individual Justices	16	(1)
Be Sensitive to Supreme Court History	17	(4)
Overarching Policy Issues in Criminal Procedure
Norms of the Criminal Process	21	(2)
Alternative Models of Criminal Justice	23	(3)
Overview	23	(1)
Crime Control Model of Criminal Justice	24	(1)
Due Process Model of Criminal Justice	24	(2)
The Role of ``Truth'' In the Criminal Justice System	26	(3)
Accusatorial versus Inquisitorial Systems of Justice	29	(3)
Race, Gender, and Economic Class in the Law	32	(2)
Who Should Devise the Rules of Criminal Procedure?	34	(1)
Formulating the Rules of Criminal Procedure: Some Overarching Controversies	35	(6)
Bright-Line Rules versus Case-by-Case Adjudication	35	(3)
Subjectivity versus Objectivity: Rule-Making to Avoid Pretextual Conduct	38	(3)
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
Incorporation: Overview	41	(2)
Nature of the Issue	41	(1)
Importance of the Debate	42	(1)
Incorporation Theories	43	(2)
Full Incorporation	43	(1)
Fundamental Rights	43	(1)
Full-Incorporation-Plus	44	(1)
Selective Incorporation	44	(1)
The Incorporation Debate	45	(3)
Overview of the Debate	45	(1)
What Did the Framers Intend?	46	(1)
Textual Claims: What Does ``Due Process'' Mean?	46	(1)
Which Doctrine Is More Libertarian?	47	(1)
Which Theory Is Structurally Preferable?	47	(1)
Which Theory Has ``Won'' the Debate?	48	(3)
Fourth Amendment: Overview
A Warning Before Beginning the Fourth Amendment Journey	51	(1)
The Text and Some (Hopefully) Useful Initial Observations	52	(2)
What Does the Fourth Amendment Seek to Protect?: A Brief Historical and Policy Overview	54	(3)
Some Things to Know at the Outset	57	(5)
Standing to Raise Fourth Amendment Claims	57	(1)
Exclusionary Rule	58	(1)
Pretrial Nature of Fourth Amendment Issues	58	(1)
``Private'' Searches and Seizures	59	(1)
Who Are ``the People'' Protected by the Fourth Amendment?	60	(2)
Fourth Amendment Checklist	62	(3)
Fourth Amendment: ``Persons, Houses, Papers, and Effects''
Significance of the Constitutional Phrase	65	(1)
``Persons''	65	(1)
``Houses''	66	(1)
``Papers and Effects''	67	(2)
Fourth Amendment Terminology: ``Search''
Why ``Search'' Law Matters	69	(2)
Constitutional Significance of the Term ``Search''	69	(1)
An Important Question for Further Consideration	70	(1)
``Search'': Original Pre-Katz Analysis	71	(1)
``Search'': The Modern Katz v. United States Analysis	72	(8)
The Fall of the Trespass Doctrine	72	(1)
Majority Opinion: In Search of a New Test	73	(1)
Concurring Opinion: A New ``Search'' Test	74	(1)
Analysis and Critique of the New Test	75	(1)
Did We Need a New Test?	75	(1)
Should We Have the Subjective Prong?	76	(1)
The Objective Prong: What Precisely Is The Standard?	77	(3)
Post-Katz ``Search'' Jurisprudence: An Overview	80	(4)
What Has Katz Wrought?	80	(1)
Trends and Counter-Trends	80	(1)
Subjective Prong	81	(1)
Objective Prong	82	(1)
Lurking Issues Worth Keeping in Mind	83	(1)
Surveillance of Conversations by ``False Friends''	84	(4)
``False Friends'' versus Katz	84	(1)
False Friends	85	(2)
``Wired'' False Friends	87	(1)
Open Fields	88	(3)
Rule and Rationale	88	(1)
``Open Field'' versus ``Curtilage''	89	(1)
Criticism of the Open-Fields Doctrine	90	(1)
Aerial Surveillance	91	(3)
Rule	91	(1)
Surveillance by Airplanes	91	(2)
Surveillance by Helicopters	93	(1)
Dog Sniffs and the Other ``Limited'' Investigative Techniques	94	(3)
Technological Information Gathering	97	(7)
In General	97	(1)
Pen Registers	98	(2)
Electronic Tracking Devices	100	(2)
Thermal Imagers	102	(2)
Inspection of Garbage	104	(3)
Fourth Amendment Terminology: ``Seizure''
Constitutional Significance of the Term ``Seizure''	107	(1)
Seizure of Property	107	(2)
General Rule	107	(1)
Special Issue: Installation of Electronic Devices on or in Personal Property	108	(1)
Seizure of Persons	109	(12)
Overview	109	(1)
The Terry Definition	109	(1)
The Mendenhall ``Reasonable Person'' Test	110	(1)
In General	110	(1)
Some Applications of the Test	111	(1)
Seizure by Questioning?	111	(1)
Factory Sweeps	112	(1)
Bus Sweeps	113	(2)
An Issue of Importance: The Nature of the ``Reasonable Person''	115	(2)
Embellishment on the Terry-Mendehall Test: The Submission-by-Authority Problem	117	(4)
Fourth Amendment: ``Probable Cause''
The Constitutional Role of ``Probable Cause''	121	(1)
Probable Cause: General Principles	122	(6)
``Probable Cause'': Definition	122	(1)
``Probable Cause'': Objective versus Subjective	122	(1)
``Probable Cause'': Arrests versus Searches	123	(1)
``Probable Cause'': With or Without Warrants	124	(1)
``Probable Cause'': Search for and Seize What?	124	(2)
Special Issue: ``Probable Cause'' and Pretextual Police Conduct	126	(2)
Determining ``Probable Cause'': Overview	128	(3)
Types of Information: In General	128	(1)
``Bald and Unilluminating'' Assertions	129	(1)
Direct Information	129	(1)
Hearsay (``Informant'') Information	130	(1)
The Aguilar Two-Pronged Test	131	(4)
In General	131	(1)
Basis-of-Knowledge Prong	132	(1)
In General	132	(1)
``Self-Verifying Detail''	132	(1)
Veracity Prong	133	(2)
Corroboration	135	(1)
The Gates ``Totality of the Circumstances'' Test	135	(4)
The Test Explained	135	(2)
Criticism of Gates	137	(2)
Probable Cause in ``Administrative Searches'': The Reasonableness Standard and the Camara Principle	139	(1)
How Probable Is ``Probable Cause''?	140	(9)
Governing Law	140	(2)
Reflections on the Issue	142	(2)
``Probable Cause'' as a Sliding Scale?	144	(1)
Is There a Sliding Scale?	144	(2)
Should There Be a Sliding Scale?	146	(3)
Arrests
``Arrest'': Overview	149	(1)
Definition	149	(1)
``Arrest'' versus ``Seizure''	149	(1)
Arrests: Common Law and Statutory Arrest Rules	150	(1)
Custodial Arrests for Minor Offenses	150	(3)
Grounds for Arrest: ``Stop and Identify'' Statutes	153	(1)
Arrest Warrants: Constitutional Law	154	(9)
Overview	154	(1)
General Rules	154	(1)
How Arrest Warrant Issues Arise	155	(1)
Arrest in a Public Place: The No-Warrant Rule	155	(2)
Arrest in the Arrestee's Home: The Warrant-Requirement Rule	157	(1)
In General	157	(1)
Scope of the Rule	158	(1)
``Home'' versus ``Public Place''	158	(2)
Exigencies Justifying Warrantless Entry	160	(1)
Hot Pursuit	160	(1)
Other Exigencies	161	(1)
Arrest in a Third Person's Home	161	(2)
Beyond Warrants: Executing an Arrest	163	(4)
Arrests in the Home: When and How Entry of the Residence Is Permitted	163	(1)
Force in Making an Arrest	164	(1)
Deadly Force	164	(1)
Non-Deadly Force	165	(2)
Search Warrants: In General
The Constitutional Role of Search Warrants: The Debate	167	(8)
Nature and Significance of the Debate	167	(2)
The Substance of the Debate	169	(1)
Historical Debate	169	(2)
Policy Debate	171	(2)
Who Has ``Won'' the Debate?	173	(2)
The Warrant Application Process	175	(1)
Search Warrant Requirements	176	(5)
``Neutral and Detached Magistrate''	176	(1)
``Oath or Affirmation''	177	(2)
``Particularity''	179	(1)
In General	179	(1)
``Place to be Searched''	179	(1)
``Persons or Things to be Seized''	180	(1)
Execution of Search Warrants	181	(10)
In Anticipation of Execution	181	(1)
Time of Execution	182	(1)
Means of Entry	182	(1)
Knock-and-Announce Rule	182	(1)
Exceptions to Rule	183	(1)
After the Knock: What Then?	184	(1)
Search of Persons While Executing a Warrant	185	(1)
In Premises Open to the Public	185	(1)
In Private Homes and Automobiles	186	(1)
Detention of Persons During Searches	187	(2)
Scope of the Search	189	(2)
Warrantless Searches: Exigent Circumstances
Exigency Exception: Explained	191	(1)
Intrusions Inside the Human Body	192	(2)
External Searches of the Body	194	(1)
Entry and Search of a Home	194	(3)
Searches Incident to Lawful Arrests
Warrant Exception: General Principles	197	(2)
Rule	197	(1)
Rationale of the Warrant Exception	197	(1)
Probable Cause	198	(1)
For the Search	198	(1)
For the Seizure of Evidence	199	(1)
The Times They Are A-Changin'	199	(1)
Warrant Exception: In Detail	199	(7)
The Arrest	199	(1)
``Full Custodial''	199	(2)
Lawfulness of the Arrest	201	(1)
Contemporaneousness of the Search	201	(1)
Area Within Arrestee's Immediate Control	201	(1)
Closets and Other Spaces Adjoining the Place of Arrest	202	(1)
Of the Person	202	(1)
Scope of the Search	203	(1)
Search of the Person	203	(1)
Area Within the Arrestee's Immediate Control	204	(1)
In General	204	(1)
Automobiles	205	(1)
Protective Searches for Dangerous Persons	206	(1)
Chimel v. California: Setting the Rule's Contours	206	(2)
United States v. Robinson: The Traffic Arrest Case	208	(3)
The Holding	208	(2)
Robinson versus Chimel	210	(1)
A Bright-Line Rule for Automobiles	211	(6)
New York v. Belton	211	(2)
Thornton v. United States	213	(1)
``Recent Occupants''	213	(1)
A Possibility of Change	214	(3)
Searches of Cars and Containers Therein
Automobile Search Warrant Exception: General Rules	217	(4)
Important Overview	217	(1)
Searches ``At the Scene''	218	(1)
Searches ``Away From the Scene''	219	(1)
Probable Cause Requirement	220	(1)
Automobile Search Warrant Exception: The ``Mobility'' Rationale	221	(4)
Carroll v. United States: True Mobility	221	(1)
Chambers v. Maroney: A Controversial View of ``Mobility''	222	(2)
Coolidge v. New Hampshire: Departing from Chambers	224	(1)
Automobile Search Warrant Exception: Lesser Privacy, A New Rationale	225	(3)
California v. Carney: The Mobility and Lesser-Expectation-of-Privacy Rationales at Work	228	(1)
Special Problem: Search of Containers Found in Cars	229	(12)
Clarification of the Issue	229	(1)
In General	229	(1)
What Is a ``Container''?	230	(1)
General Rule	230	(1)
How the Container Rules Developed	231	(1)
United States v. Chadwick	231	(3)
Arkansas v. Sanders	234	(1)
United States v. Ross	235	(2)
California v. Acevedo	237	(2)
What Is Left of Chadwick?	239	(2)
``Plain View'' and Related Doctrines
Plain View: General Principles	241	(1)
Elements of the Doctrine	241	(1)
Rationale of the Doctrine	241	(1)
``Plain View'': Examining the Elements in Detail	242	(2)
Element 1: Lawful Vantage Point	242	(1)
Element 2: Right of Access to the Object	243	(1)
Element 3: Right to Seize Is ``Immediately Apparent''	244	(1)
The Plain View Doctrine at Work: Arizona v. Hicks	244	(3)
``Inadvertent Discovery'': The Plain View Debate	247	(2)
Expanding on Plain View: Use of Other Senses	249	(2)
``Plain Hearing'' and ``Plain Smell'' Doctrines	249	(1)
``Plain Touch'' (or ``Plain Feel'') Doctrine	249	(2)
Inventory Searches
Automobile Inventories	251	(7)
General Principles	251	(2)
The Inventory Exception: In Detail	253	(1)
Administrative Non-Pretextual Nature of the Search	253	(2)
``Routine'' Nature of the Inventory	255	(1)
In General	255	(1)
Nondiscretionary Inventories	255	(1)
Discretionary Inventories	256	(1)
Automobile Owner's Wishes	256	(1)
Scope of an Inventory	257	(1)
Containers	257	(1)
Locked Portions of the Automobile	257	(1)
Inspection of the Papers	258	(1)
Arrest Inventories	258	(3)
Consent Searches
Preliminary Observations: Pragmatism, the Police, and the Supreme Court	261	(2)
Consent Searches: General Principles	263	(2)
General Rule	263	(1)
Rationale for the Rule	263	(1)
Waiver?	263	(1)
No Reasonable Expectation of Privacy?	264	(1)
Reasonableness?	264	(1)
Voluntary Consent	265	(6)
Voluntariness: In General	265	(1)
Claim of Authority by the Police	266	(1)
Police Deception	267	(1)
Awareness of Fourth Amendment Rights	268	(3)
Scope of Search	271	(1)
Third Party Consent	272	(2)
``Apparent Authority''	274	(3)
Terry v. Ohio: The ``Reasonableness'' Balancing Standard in Criminal Investigations
Terry v. Ohio: An Overview to a Landmark Case	277	(2)
Terry v. Ohio: The Opinion	279	(5)
Majority Opinion	279	(5)
Justice Harlan's Concurring Opinion	284	(1)
``Reasonable Suspicion''	284	(13)
In General	284	(2)
Types of Information	286	(1)
Overview	286	(1)
Hearsay: When It Is and Is Not Sufficient	286	(3)
Drug-Courier Profiles	289	(3)
Flight in ``High Crime Areas''	292	(2)
Reflections on the Role of Race and Other Suspect Classifications in Determining ``Reasonable Suspicion''	294	(3)
Distinguishing a ``Terry Stop'' From an Arrest	297	(5)
Overview to the Issue	297	(1)
Length of the Detention	298	(1)
Forcible Movement of the Suspect	299	(1)
In General	299	(1)
Special Problem: Removal from an Automobile After a Lawful Stop	299	(2)
Existence of ``Less Intrusive Means''	301	(1)
Grounds for ``Terry Stops''	302	(2)
Crime Prevention versus Crime Detection	302	(1)
Nature of the Crime	303	(1)
Fingerprinting	303	(1)
Weapons Searches: Of Persons	304	(2)
Permissibility	304	(1)
Method	304	(1)
Pat-Down (Frisk)	304	(1)
After the Pat-Down	305	(1)
Extending Terry: Weapons Searches of Automobiles	306	(1)
Extending Terry: Protective Sweeps of Residences	307	(2)
Extending Terry: Temporary Seizures of Property	309	(2)
More ``Reasonableness'' Balancing: Searches and Seizures Primarily Conducted for Non-Criminal Law Purposes
Overview	311	(1)
Administrative Searches	312	(3)
International Border Searches and Seizures	315	(3)
At the Border	315	(1)
Near the Border	316	(1)
In General	316	(1)
Roving Border Patrols	316	(1)
Fixed Interior Checkpoints	317	(1)
Automobile Inspections and Checkpoints	318	(9)
Automobile License and Vehicle Registration Inspections	318	(2)
Automobile Checkpoints	320	(1)
Sobriety Checkpoints	320	(2)
Anti-Drug, Anti-Crime, Anti-Terrorism (and Still Other) Checkpoints	322	(5)
``Special Needs'' Searches and Seizures	327	(16)
In General	327	(1)
Searches of Personal Property and Premises	328	(1)
Searches Directed at Public School Students	328	(1)
Searches Directed at Public Employees	329	(1)
Searches Directed at Probationers	330	(1)
Drug and Alcohol Testing	331	(1)
Fourth Amendment Factors in Evaluating Testing	331	(1)
Approved Testing	332	(1)
Public Employees	332	(2)
Public School Students	334	(4)
Disapproved Testing	338	(5)
Fourth Amendment: Standing
The Role of ``Standing'' in Fourth Amendment Law	343	(2)
In General	343	(1)
Is ``Standing'' a Separate Concept?	344	(1)
Rationale of the Standing Requirement	345	(3)
The Law of Standing: Pre-Rakas v. Illinois	348	(2)
In General	348	(1)
Automatic Standing	349	(1)
Standing to Contest a Search: Rakas v. Illinois	350	(12)
The New Approach	350	(3)
The Impact of Rakas: A Closer Look	353	(1)
Search of Another Person's Residence	354	(1)
When the Owner or Lessor Is Absent	354	(1)
When the Owner or Lessor Is Present	354	(3)
Search of One's Own Automobile When Absent	357	(1)
Search of Another Person's Automobile	357	(1)
When the Owner Is Absent	357	(1)
When the Owner Is Present	358	(1)
Contesting a Search Resulting in the Seizure of One's Own Property	359	(3)
Standing to Contest a Seizure: Post-Rakas	362	(3)
Fourth Amendment: Exclusionary Rule
Historical Development of the Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule	365	(4)
Rights versus Remedies	365	(1)
Federal Exclusionary Rule: Weeks v. United States	366	(1)
Exclusionary Rule for the States?	366	(1)
Step 1: Wolf v. Colorado	366	(1)
Step 2: Rochin v. California and Its Progeny	367	(1)
Step 3: Mapp v. Ohio	368	(1)
Rationale of the Exclusionary Rule	369	(2)
Is the Exclusionary Rule Constitutionally Required?	371	(2)
Exclusionary Rule: Should It Be Abolished?	373	(13)
Political and Historical Overview	373	(1)
Is There Historical Foundation for the Exclusionary Rule?	374	(1)
Does the Exclusionary Rule Deter Constitutional Violations?	375	(4)
Is the Rule (Even If It Deters) Worth Its Cost?	379	(1)
Should This Question Even Be Asked?	379	(1)
The ``Costs''	380	(1)
The Rule Protects the Wrong People	380	(1)
The Rule Promotes Cynicism	381	(2)
The Rule Results in Disproportionate Punishment	383	(1)
Are There Better Remedies?	384	(2)
When the Exclusionary Rule Does Not Apply: In General	386	(3)
Non-Criminal Proceedings	386	(1)
In General	386	(1)
Habeas Corpus	386	(1)
Criminal Proceedings	387	(1)
Non-Trial Proceedings	387	(1)
At a Criminal Trial	387	(1)
``Good Faith'' Exception	387	(1)
Impeachment Exception	388	(1)
When the Exclusionary Rule Does Not Apply: The ``Good Faith'' Exception	389	(7)
Rule	389	(1)
In General	389	(1)
``Good Faith''	390	(1)
When Leon Does Not Apply	390	(1)
In General	390	(3)
Improperly Executed Warrants	393	(1)
Why the Exception?: The Reasoning of Leon	393	(3)
The Exclusionary Rule, Good Faith, and Warrantless Police Conduct	396	(4)
Should Leon Extend to Warrantless Police Action?	396	(1)
Arguments in Favor of Extending Leon	397	(1)
Arguments Against Extending Leon	397	(1)
Answering the Question: Post-Leon Law	398	(2)
``Fruit of the Poisonous Tree'' Doctrine	400	(11)
Conceptual Overview	400	(1)
General Principles	400	(1)
Identifying the Poisonous Tree	401	(1)
Independent Source Doctrine	401	(2)
Inevitable Discovery Rule	403	(2)
Attenuated Connection Principle (The Wong Sun Rule)	405	(1)
General Rule	405	(1)
Attenuation Factors	405	(1)
Temporal Proximity	405	(1)
Intervening Events	406	(1)
In General	406	(1)
Intervening Act of Free Will	406	(1)
Special Issue: Statement Obtained After an Unlawful Entry of a Home	407	(1)
Flagrancy of the Violation	408	(1)
Nature of the Derivative Evidence	408	(3)
Interrogation Law: Overview
Reflections on Modern Interrogation Law	411	(1)
Police Interrogation Techniques: Historically and at Present	412	(2)
Interrogation Law: Constitutional Issues	414	(3)
Was the Confession Obtained involuntarily (or by Coercion)?	415	(1)
Due Process Clause	415	(1)
Fifth Amendment Compulsory Self-Incrimination Clause	415	(1)
Was the Confession Obtained in Violation of Miranda v. Arizona?	416	(1)
Was the Defendant Entitled to Counsel?	417	(1)
Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel	417	(1)
``Miranda'' Right to Counsel	417	(1)
Interrogation Law: An Overview to the Policy Debate	417	(6)
Societal Ambivalence Regarding Confessions	417	(1)
Why the Public Favors Confessions	418	(1)
Why the Public Is Concerned About Confessions	418	(1)
Has the Law Gone Far Enough or Too Far Regarding Confessions?	419	(1)
Questions to Think About	420	(3)
Interrogation Law: Due Process Clause
Historical Development	423	(2)
Common Law	423	(1)
Constitutional Law	424	(1)
Due Process Clause: The Voluntariness Requirement	425	(12)
General Principles	425	(1)
Rule	425	(1)
Rationale of the Voluntariness Requirement	426	(1)
The Voluntariness Requirement in Greater Detail	427	(1)
Critical Overview	427	(3)
Some Reflections on the Use of Torture in the Post 9/11 World	430	(2)
``Voluntariness'': Factors	432	(1)
Actual or Threatened Use of Physical Force	432	(2)
Psychological Pressures	434	(1)
Promises of Leniency and Threats of Harsh Legal Treatment	434	(2)
Deception	436	(1)
Due Process Clause: Remedies for Violation of the Right	437	(4)
Requirement of State Action (Official Overreaching)	437	(1)
Standing to Raise an Involuntary Confession Claim	438	(1)
Exclusionary Rule	439	(1)
Constitutional Basis of the Exclusionary Rule	439	(1)
Scope of the Exclusionary Rule	439	(1)
Impeachment	439	(1)
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine	439	(1)
Wrongful Admission of Statement at Trial	440	(1)
Interrogation Law: Privilege Against Compelled Self-Incrimination
Fifth Amendment Self-Incrimination Clause: Overview	441	(1)
The Origins of the Privilege Against Self-Incrimination	442	(2)
Is the Privilege a Good Idea?: The Controversy	444	(7)
In General	444	(2)
The Modern Debate	446	(1)
The ``Cruel Trilemma'' Thesis	446	(1)
Compelled Self-Accusation As a Moral Wrong	447	(1)
The Privilege as a Critical Component of the Adversary System	448	(1)
Protection of the Innocent	449	(2)
The Fifth Amendment Privilege: The Elements	451	(8)
``No Person''	451	(1)
``Shall Be Compelled''	452	(1)
``In Any Criminal Case''	453	(1)
``To Be a Witness Against Himself''	454	(1)
What Makes a Person a ``Witness''	454	(1)
``Testimonial or Communicative'' Evidence: The Rule	454	(1)
Application of the Rule	455	(1)
A Closer Look at the Rule: Pennsylvania v. Muniz	456	(1)
Seriousness of the Threat of Incrimination	457	(2)
Privilege Against Self-Incrimination in the Police Interrogation Context	459	(8)
General Principles	459	(1)
Original, Bright-Line Approach	459	(1)
Modern Totality-of-Circumstances Test: Two Constitutional Provisions (and Standards) Become One	460	(2)
Remedies for Violation of the Fifth Amendment Privilege	462	(1)
Requirement of State Action	462	(1)
Standing to Raise Claim	462	(1)
Exclusionary Rule	463	(1)
Constitutional Basis of the Exclusionary Rule	463	(1)
Scope of the Exclusionary Rule	464	(1)
Impeachment	464	(1)
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine	464	(3)
Interrogation Law: Miranda v. Arizona
Miranda: A Brief Overview and Some Reflections	467	(1)
Miranda: Placing the Case in Historical Context	468	(2)
The Road to Miranda: Escobedo v. Illinois	470	(2)
Miranda: The Case	472	(6)
The Facts	472	(1)
The Holding	472	(1)
What Rights Does a Suspect Have in the Interrogation Room?	472	(1)
Self-Incrimination	472	(1)
Right to Counsel	473	(1)
Procedural Safeguards: The ``Miranda Warnings''	474	(1)
Waiver of a Suspect's ``Miranda Rights''	474	(1)
In General	474	(1)
Voluntariness of the Waiver	475	(1)
Intelligence of the Waiver	475	(1)
Enforcing the Rights	475	(1)
Privilege Against Self-Incrimination	475	(1)
Right to Counsel	475	(1)
Reasoning of the Court	476	(1)
Custodial Interrogation as ``Compulsion''	476	(1)
The Limited Importance of Confessions in Law Enforcement	477	(1)
Fifth Amendment Values and the Importance of the Adversarial System	477	(1)
Criticisms of Miranda	478	(7)
``Miranda Did Not Go Far Enough''	479	(1)
``Miranda Went Too Far''	479	(1)
``Miranda Lacks Historical and Textual Support''	479	(1)
``The Rule Is Unnecessary and Irrational''	480	(1)
``Miranda is Anti-Confession and Pro-Fox Hunt''	481	(2)
``Miranda Is Injurious to Law Enforcement''	483	(2)
Is Miranda a Constitutionally Based Decision?	485	(6)
Act 1: Congress and Miranda	485	(1)
Act 2: Miranda as a ``Prophylactic Rule''	486	(2)
Act 3: Miranda is (Sort of) Re-Constitutionalized	488	(1)
Dickerson v. United States	488	(1)
Dickerson's Significance	489	(2)
Meaning of Miranda: ``Custody''	491	(5)
General Principles	491	(2)
Commonly Asked ``Custody'' Questions	493	(1)
Does ``Focus'' Equal ``Custody''?	493	(1)
Does Miranda Apply Outside the Police Station?	494	(1)
Does Miranda Apply to Minor Offenses?	494	(1)
Does Miranda Apply to a ``Terry Stop''?	495	(1)
Are Miranda Warnings Required In All ``Coercive Environments''?	495	(1)
Meaning of Miranda: ``Interrogation''	496	(3)
In General	496	(1)
Rule	496	(1)
A Closer Look at the Rule	497	(1)
When Is an Interrogation Not a Miranda ``Interrogation''?	498	(1)
Adequacy of Miranda Warnings	499	(2)
Waiver of Miranda Rights	501	(10)
In General	501	(1)
Overview	501	(1)
Types of Waiver: Express versus Implied	501	(1)
Elements of a Valid Waiver	502	(1)
Generally	502	(1)
Voluntariness of the Waiver	502	(1)
Knowing and Intelligent Waiver	503	(1)
Moran v. Burbine: Waiver in the Post-Miranda Era	504	(2)
Waiver Law: If a Suspect Asserts His Rights	506	(1)
Overview	506	(1)
Right to Remain Silent	506	(1)
Right to Counsel	507	(1)
The Edwards v. Arizona Rule	507	(1)
When the Edwards Rule Does Not Apply	508	(1)
Ambiguous Request for Counsel	508	(2)
Request for Counsel for Non-Interrogation Purposes	510	(1)
Anticipatory Request for Counsel	511	(1)
Custodial Interrogation: When Miranda Warnings Are Not Required	511	(4)
Public-Safety Exception	511	(2)
Covert Custodial Interrogation	513	(1)
Routine-Booking-Questions Exception	514	(1)
Scope of the Miranda Exclusionary Rule	515	(10)
Impeachment Exception	515	(1)
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine	516	(1)
In General	516	(1)
A Tentative Start: Michigan v. Tucker	517	(1)
Expanding on Tucker: Oregon v. Elstad and United States v. Patane	518	(3)
When a ``Fruit'' May Be Inadmissible: Missouri v. Seibert	521	(4)
Interrogation Law: Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel
Massiah v. United States	525	(5)
Historical Overview	525	(1)
Massiah: The Opinion	526	(1)
Making Sense of Massiah: The Sixth Amendment Role of Counsel	527	(3)
The Sixth Amendment (Massiah) Right to Counsel: Summary	530	(2)
Procedural Initiation of the Right to Counsel: Adversary Judicial Proceedings	532	(1)
``Offense-Specific'' Nature of the Right to Counsel	533	(3)
Requirement of ``Deliberate Elicitation''	536	(6)
``Deliberate Elicitation'' versus ``Interrogation''	536	(1)
What Does ``Deliberate'' Mean?	537	(1)
``Deliberate'' as ``Purposeful''	537	(1)
``Deliberate'' as Meaning Something Less Than ``Purposeful''?	538	(2)
What Is ``Elicitation''?	540	(2)
Waiver of the Right to Counsel	542	(8)
General Principles	542	(1)
The Court's First Waiver Case: Brewer v. Williams	542	(2)
When May a Waiver Be Secured?	544	(1)
When the Accused Requests Counsel	544	(1)
The Michigan v. Jackson Rule	544	(1)
Jackson (Sixth Amendment) versus Edwards (Miranda)	545	(1)
Jackson's Continued Vitality	546	(1)
When the Accused Does Not Request Counsel	547	(1)
Before Counsel Is Appointed or Hired	547	(1)
After Counsel Is Appointed or Hired	548	(1)
Elements of a Valid Waiver	549	(1)
``Voluntary''	549	(1)
``Knowing and Intelligent''	549	(1)
Scope of the Sixth Amendment Exclusionary Rule	550	(5)
Right or Remedy?	550	(2)
When the Police Investigate ``Sixth Amendment'' and ``Non-Sixth Amendment'' Offenses	552	(1)
Use of Evidence for Impeachment Purposes	553	(1)
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine	554	(1)
Right-to-Counsel Summary: Sixth Amendment versus Miranda	555	(4)
Eyewitness Identification Procedures
Eyewitness Identification: The Problem and Potential Safeguards	559	(5)
The Problem	559	(1)
Overview of the Problem	559	(1)
Details of the Problem	560	(3)
Potential Safeguards	563	(1)
Corporeal Identification Procedures: Right to Counsel	564	(4)
Rule	564	(1)
How the Rule Developed	565	(1)
The Start: United States v. Wade	565	(1)
Turning Away from Wade: Kirby v. Illinois	566	(1)
The Role of Counsel in the Identification Process	567	(1)
Non-Corporeal Identification Procedures: Right to Counsel	568	(1)
Identification Procedures: Due Process of Law	569	(2)
Entrapment
Entrapment: In General	571	(1)
Entrapment: The Subjective Test	572	(5)
Rule	572	(1)
In General	572	(1)
Proving Predisposition	572	(4)
Rationale of the Rule	576	(1)
Procedural Features of the Rule	577	(1)
Entrapment: The Objective Test	577	(3)
Rule	577	(2)
Rationale of the Rule	579	(1)
Procedural Features of the Rule	579	(1)
Entrapment: The Debate	580	(3)
Overview	580	(1)
Criticisms of the Subjective Test	580	(1)
``The Legislative Intent Rationale Is Fictional''	580	(1)
``The Subjective Test Acquits Culpable Persons''	581	(1)
``The Subjective Test Is Unfair''	581	(1)
Criticisms of the Objective Test	582	(1)
``The Test Leads to Inappropriate Results''	582	(1)
``The Test's Stated Rationales Are Indefensible''	582	(1)
Entrapment: Due Process	583	(4)
The Right to Counsel: At Trial and On Appeal
Overview: The Importance of Defense Lawyers in the Adversary System	587	(1)
When the Right to Counsel Applies	587	(1)
The Right to Counsel: At Trial	588	(12)
The Right to Employ Counsel	588	(1)
Indigents: The Right to Appointed Counsel	589	(1)
Overview	589	(1)
The Road to Gideon	590	(1)
Powell v. Alabama	590	(1)
Johnson v. Zerbst	591	(1)
Betts v. Brady	592	(1)
Gideon v. Wainwright	592	(2)
Post-Gideon Law: The Misdemeanor Cases	594	(1)
Argersinger v. Hamlin	594	(1)
Scott v. Illinois	595	(2)
Alabama v. Shelton	597	(1)
Two More Cases: Nichols and Gagnon	598	(1)
Implementing the Right to Appointed Counsel	599	(1)
The Right to Counsel: On Appeal	600	(7)
Inapplicability of the Sixth Amendment	600	(2)
First Appeal (as of Right)	602	(1)
In General	602	(1)
Special Problem: Frivolous Appeals	603	(1)
Subsequent (Discretionary) Appeals	604	(2)
First (Discretionary) Appeal After a Guilty Plea	606	(1)
The Right of Self-Representation	607	(7)
The Defense: Who Is in Charge?	607	(1)
Faretta v. California	608	(1)
Recognition of the Right	608	(1)
Reflections on Faretta	609	(3)
Procedural Issues	612	(1)
Making the Choice of Self-Representation	612	(1)
Timeliness of the Request	612	(1)
Hybrid Representation	612	(1)
Standby Counsel	613	(1)
Legal Significance of Poor Self-Representation	613	(1)
Legal Effect of an Erroneous Denial of the Right	614	(1)
The Right to Representation by One's Preferred Attorney	614	(3)
In General	614	(1)
Special Problem: Seizing Lawyers' Fees	615	(2)
Interference With the Right to Counsel	617	(1)
Effective Assistance of Counsel: General Principles	618	(14)
Nature of the Issue	618	(1)
``Ineffective Assistance'': The Strickland Test	619	(1)
Overview	619	(2)
The First Prong: Deficiency of Representation	621	(1)
The Standard	621	(2)
Deficiency: Supreme Court Case Law	623	(1)
Failure to Perform Ordinary Tasks --- Held Not Unreasonable	623	(1)
Failure to Perform Ordinary Tasks --- Held Unreasonable	624	(1)
Ignorance of Relevant Law	625	(1)
The Second Prong: Prejudice	626	(1)
The Standard	626	(2)
Prejudice: Supreme Court Case Law	628	(1)
Prejudice: Special Problems	629	(1)
The Factually Guilty Defendant	629	(2)
The Sleeping Lawyer	631	(1)
Effective Assistance of Counsel: Conflicts of Interest	632	(3)
Nature of the Issue	632	(1)
Pretrial Procedures to Avoid Conflicts	632	(1)
Post-Trial Proof of a Conflict	633	(1)
Waiver of the Right to Conflict-Free Representation	634	(1)
Effective Assistance: The Role of Ethical Canons	635
Index	1	(1)
Table of Rules	1	(1)
Table of Statutes	1	(1)
Table of Cases	1