Understanding Human Evolution

by McKee, Jeffrey K.; Poirier, Frank E.; Mcgraw, W Scott

• ISBN13: 9780131113909
• ISBN10: 0131113909
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-09-23
• Publisher: Routledge

Summary

This new edition provides a comprehensive overview to the field of paleontologythe study of human evolution by analyzing fossil remains. It includes the latest fossil finds, and it presents current controversies in an even-handed manner.The authors examine trends in human evolution, fossils, fossilization, and dating methods, determining evolutionary relationships, reconstructing ancient human behavior and social organizations, basal anthropoids, the evolution of monkeys and the transition to apes, the early Hominins, the Hominin divergence, the spread of Homobeyond Africa, transition to Archaic Homo sapiens,Neandertals and their immediate predecessors and the appearance of Homo sapiens sapiens.For those interested in a balanced paleoanthropology sourcebook.

Author Biography

Jeffrey K. McKee, Ohio State University
Frank E. Poirier, Emeritus, Ohio State University
W. Scott McGraw, Ohio State University

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
CHAPTER ONE TRENDS IN HUMAN EVOLUTION	1	(28)
Overview	2	(3)
Trend 1: The Evolution of Bipedalism	5	(8)
Origins of Bipedalism	9	(4)
Trend 2: Effective Exploitation of the Terrestrial Habitat	13	(4)
Language	15	(2)
Trend 3: Increasing Brain Size and Complexity	17	(4)
Trend 4: Extensive Manipulation of Natural Objects and the Development of Motor Skills to Facilitate Toolmaking	21	(3)
Trend 5: The Increased Acquisition of Meat Protein	24	(2)
Summary	26	(1)
Suggested Readings	27	(2)
CHAPTER TWO FOSSILS, FOSSILIZATION, AND DATING METHODS	29	(15)
The Fossilization Process	30	(2)
Dating Fossil Materials	32	(7)
Relative Dating	33	(3)
Chronometric Dating	36	(3)
Determining Past Environments	39	(4)
Climate and Geology	40	(1)
Plant Communities	41	(1)
Mammal Communities	42	(1)
Summary	43	(1)
Suggested Readings	43	(1)
CHAPTER THREE DETERMINING EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS	44	(19)
Linnaean Classification Scheme	45	(1)
Rules of Nomenclature	45	(3)
The Evolutionary Process	48	(3)
Speciation	51	(2)
Parallel and Convergent Evolution	53	(1)
Establishing Evolutionary Relationships	54	(2)
Guidelines for Evaluating Fossil Materials	56	(3)
Assessing the Pace of Evolution and Mode of Speciation	59	(2)
Summary	61	(1)
Suggested Readings	62	(1)
CHAPTER FOUR OUR PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM	63	(18)
Geologic Time Scale	64	(3)
Vertebrate Evolution	67	(2)
Mammal-Like Reptiles and Mammalian Evolution	69	(3)
Mammalian Traits	70	(1)
Mammalian Subclasses	71	(1)
The Insectivora	72	(2)
The Primates	74	(5)
Primate Traits	74	(2)
The Human Ape Relationship	76	(3)
The Human Primate	79	(1)
Summary	80	(1)
Suggested Readings	80	(1)
CHAPTER FIVE RECONSTRUCTING ANCIENT HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS: USE OF THE COMPARATIVE APPROACH	81	(28)
Overview	82	(1)
The Nature of Explanatory Models	83	(3)
Foraging Societies	86	(4)
Rethinking Gender Roles in Early Hominins	89	(1)
Nonhuman Primates	90	(16)
A Note of Caution	91	(1)
Savanna Dwelling Baboons as Models of Early Hominin Behavior	91	(1)
Chimpanzees as Models of Early Hominin Behavior	92	(1)
Chimpanzee Tool Use	93	(2)
Another Great Ape in the Cultural Arena: The Orangutan	95	(1)
Hunting by Chimpanzees	96	(3)
Chimpanzee Social Organization and Feeding Ecology	99	(2)
The Peaceful Bonobo	101	(4)
A Composite Model	105	(1)
Social Carnivores	106	(1)
Summary	106	(1)
Suggested Readings	107	(2)
CHAPTER SIX EARLY PRIMATE EVOLUTION	109	(18)
Overview	110	(1)
Dietary Patterns	111	(1)
"Archaic" Primates of the Paleocene	112	(2)
Eocene True Primates	114	(4)
Adaptive Scenarios for Primate Origins	118	(4)
Arboreal Hypothesis	118	(1)
Visual Predation Theory	119	(1)
Angiosperm Exploitation Hypothesis	120	(2)
The Appearance of the First Higher Primates	122	(1)
The Earliest Anthropoids	122	(3)
Summary	125	(1)
Suggested Readings	126	(1)
CHAPTER SEVEN BASAL ANTHROPOIDS, THE EVOLUTION OF MONKEYS, AND THE TRANSITION TO APES	127	(32)
Fayum Deposits, Egypt	128	(1)
The Parapithecids	129	(1)
The Propliopithecids	130	(4)
The Oligopithecines	134	(1)
Origin of New World Monkeys	135	(3)
Origin of Old World Monkeys	138	(2)
Origin of the Apes	140	(17)
Backdrop for Ape Evolution	142	(1)
Early African Apes: The Proconsulids	143	(3)
Middle-Late Miocene African Hominoids	146	(2)
Eurasian Apes	148	(2)
Oreopithecus	150	(1)
The Dryopithecines	150	(2)
The Sivapithecines	152	(2)
The Ramapithecus Debate	154	(2)
Another (Big) Member of the Orangutan Clade: Gigantopithecus	156	(1)
Summary	157	(1)
Suggested Readings	158	(1)
CHAPTER EIGHT THE EARLY HOMININS	159	(30)
Geographic and Temporal Range of the Early Hominins	160	(7)
East Africa and Chad	160	(5)
South Africa	165	(2)
The Nature of the Fossil Evidence	167	(1)
Characteristics of the Fossil Species	168	(5)
Evolutionary Trends	173	(10)
Body Size and Limb Proportions	173	(1)
Jaws and "Teeth	173	(2)
Skull, Brain Size and Structure, and Face	175	(2)
The Postcranial Skeleton	177	(4)
Sexual Dimorphism	181	(2)
Early Hominin Paleoecology	183	(1)
Lifeways	184	(3)
Did Early Hominins Have Tools?	185	(1)
Dart's Osteodontokeratic Culture	185	(1)
Diet	186	(1)
Summary	187	(1)
Suggested Readings	187	(2)
CHAPTER NINE THE HOMININ DIVERGENCE	189	(27)
Historical Perspective	190	(1)
Geographic and Temporal Range of Late Pliocene Hominins	191	(2)
The Fossil Evidence	193	(4)
The Robust Australopithecines	194	(1)
Early Homo	195	(2)
Evolutionary Trends	197	(4)
Body Size	197	(1)
Postcranial Morphology	198	(3)
Lifeways	201	(7)
Tool Use and Manufacture	201	(2)
Other Possible Cultural Remains	203	(2)
Food Sources	205	(2)
Hunting and Scavenging	207	(1)
Paleoecology	208	(7)
The Dietary Hypothesis	211	(2)
Environmental Change and Hominin Evolution	213	(2)
Summary	215	(1)
Suggested Readings	215	(1)
CHAPTER TEN THE SPREAD OF HOMO BEYOND AFRICA	216	(43)
Overview	217	(2)
Geographic and Temporal Range of Plio-Pleistocene Hominins	219	(25)
Africa	219	(8)
Middle East	227	(1)
Asia	228	(12)
Europe	240	(4)
General Morphology	244	(6)
Evolutionary Relationships	250	(2)
Acheulian Tradition	252	(3)
Homo erectus and the Use of Fire	255	(2)
Summary	257	(1)
Suggested Readings	258	(1)
CHAPTER ELEVEN TRANSITIONS TO ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS	259	(17)
Overview	260	(1)
African Fossils	261	(2)
Asian Fossils	263	(3)
European Fossils	266	(6)
Lifeways	272	(3)
Summary	275	(1)
Suggested Readings	275	(1)
CHAPTER TWELVE NEANDERTALS AND THEIR IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS	276	(33)
The Neandertals: The Background	277	(3)
Discovery of Neandertal Remains	278	(2)
European Eemian (or Riss-Wurm) Interglacial Sample	280	(4)
Fontéchevade, France	280	(1)
Ehringsdorf, Germany	281	(1)
Krapina, Croatia	282	(2)
The Neandertals: The Fossil Sample	284	(11)
Western Europe	284	(4)
Central and Eastern Europe	288	(3)
The Middle East	291	(4)
Cultural Remains and Lifeways	295	(8)
Neandertal Burials	300	(3)
Evolutionary Relationships	303	(5)
Genetic Evidence	306	(2)
Summary	308	(1)
Suggested Readings	308	(1)
CHAPTER THIRTEEN THE APPEARANCE OF HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS	309	(45)
Overview: Models and DNA	310	(10)
Mitochondrial DNA	314	(3)
Y Chromosome	317	(1)
Nuclear DNA	318	(1)
Fossils versus DNA	319	(1)
The Human Fossil Sample	320	(21)
Africa	320	(3)
Europe	323	(2)
Asia	325	(3)
Australia and the Pacific Region	328	(2)
New World Populations	330	(10)
South American Sites	340	(1)
Upper Paleolithic Lifeways	341	(3)
Dietary Patterns	341	(1)
Dwellings	341	(1)
Group Organization	342	(1)
Tool Inventory	342	(2)
Major Features	344	(1)
Aesthetic Expression of Upper Paleolithic Populations	344	(8)
Cave Art	345	(5)
Sculpture and Engravings	350	(2)
Summary	352	(1)
Suggested Readings	353	(1)
CHAPTER FOURTEEN CONCLUSION?	354	(9)
Retrospective	355	(1)
Questions to Be Answered and Gaps to Be Filled	356	(2)
What Constitutes Human Status?	358	(1)
Prospects for Continuing Evolution	359	(4)
Glossary	363	(5)
Bibliography	368	(27)
Index	395

Excerpts

Human evolution, and the evolution of human predecessors, were undoubtedly dramas that involved a complex web of characters and events. The scientists who study human evolution, paleoanthropologists, have a rich history as well, involving discovery, analysis, and debate. This book is designed to present an up-to-date picture of both our evolutionary origins as well as the field of paleoanthropology in a relatively nontechnical manner that can be appreciated by the general reader. A major feature of this presentation is its approach to the study of the primate fossil record. Skeletal remains are viewed in light of what they can reveal about the populations they represent: their anatomy, behavior, and social organization. The primate fossil record is presented as an evolutionary theater and not merely as isolated bones uncovered by tireless investigators. The text is written primarily for the uninitiated, and a number of features are included to aid the reader''s comprehension and allow further research on the topics discussed. A glossary of many of the technical terms is appended as a reference. A number of theoretical possibilities provide the reader with alternative views. Because our knowledge is changing rapidly, who knows what theory now in vogue or disrepute will be ignored or championed a few years hence? It would be a gross misreading of the material and a disservice to those working in the field if one were to close the book feeling that all the work has been done and that all questions have been settled. Few other fields of scientific endeavor leave so much unanswered and have so much work yet to be done. Perhaps some who read this book will rise to the challenge. Until fairly recently, the discovery of evidence for primate evolution and earlier stages of human cultural development was largely the result of accident. Now, however, sufficient material exists for planned research to proceed. Advanced technologies have provided new insights. Within recent times the following changes in fossil studies have occurred: Paleoanthropology has become more concerned with framing questions than with simply collecting more evidence, such as tools and fossils; the successful application of newer dating techniques and the refinement of others have allowed a more accurate time scale to be established; and the understanding of human evolution has expanded as its study has become interdisciplinary. The rapid development of the field of paleoanthropology and its remarkable success (as a result of both field and laboratory studies) in understanding primate evolution are all the more dramatic given the limited funding available. The scientific approach attempts to understand the universe through direct observation. Science searches for knowledge and understanding through the formulation of theories of nature. Scientific theories are first forwarded as hypotheses, which scientists utilize to explain phenomena. Together with certain initial data, a hypothesis entails the facts of observation. The hypothesis considers a supposition as if it were true, without actually accepting it as true. The researcher needs to have some clue as to what facts will help solve a problem. The best guide is a tentative hypothesis, which concurs with existing knowledge and is so framed that with its help the researcher can deduce that under certain conditions certain other facts will be found if the hypothesis is valid. The initial conditions of the hypothesis should be observable or experimentally produced, and the deduced facts should be observed. When assessing the strength or predictability of a hypothesis, stress is laid on the range and variety of facts that can be brought under its explanatory umbrella. Each hypothesis is tested against new information, and it can and should be modified to reflect new data or be rejected in favor of another. Scientific theories are explanatory principles that stand the test of time. A theory may signify any hypothesis, whether confirmed or not, or it may be restricted to hypotheses that have been so strongly confirmed as to have become part of accepted scientific doctrine. A theory generally signifies a systematic account of some field of endeavor, derived from a set of general propositions. There may be rival theories, and scientists must jettison one theory for another if circumstances dictate. The scientific attitude is scientific only to the extent that its practitioners are prepared to admit that a favored theory is no longer functioning. Science is about the systematic search for answers to questions. For paleoanthropology, the main question is: Who are we, and how did we get here?Paleoanthropologists are not the only ones seeking to answer the query. This is either theor a fundamental question for anthropology, philosophy, and theology, for example. This book records scientific endeavors to explain who we are and how we got here. We try to explain human evolution and try to place humans into the context of geological and biological change on planet Earth. Scientists often work in steps, first asking limited questions to get at a broader question. One discovery may lead to another; one question may be the basis of another question; one answer may lead to another question. Major scientific breakthroughs are usually the result of the work of many people building upon one another''s work. Knowledge advances through seeking answers to questions. The following questions were asked and answered in the process of formulating the modern theory of evolution. Geologists provided hypotheses (often competing at first) to explain geological change and the appearance of fossils. First jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and then Charles Darwin and Alfred R. Wallace asked why there was variation in life and how such variation was produced and maintained. Having provided the answer as to why variation exists, Darwin attempted to explain how such variation was passed generationally. His explanation was incorrect. Gregor Mendel asked the same question, and provided the correct answer. The synthesis of Mendel''s theories with the Darwin-Wallace hypothesis led to new insights and a more comprehensive theory of evolution. Observing phenomena is only one part of the scientific endeavor. The phenomena need to be explained, measured, and described. Sometimes a problem cannot be approached directly because of the nature of the available evidence. For example, the knowledge we seek about the behavior and social organization of extinct human and nonhuman primates is only partly attainable through analysis of their fossilized remains. We use models such as living monkeys and apes to overcome this obstacle (Chapter 5). Monkeys, apes, and humans share an evolutionary history (Chapter 4). New technologies developed in the fields of geology, chemistry, and molecular genetics provide data that greatly enhance the work of anthropologists. The fruits of some of these technologies are discussed in Chapter 4, where we describe the genetic evidence that reveals the closeness of the human-ape relationship, and in Chapter 2, where we discuss how new dating techniques have provided new insights into the evolutionary relationships of our primate ancestors. Neither the scientific method nor its practitioners are infallible. Because the scientific method requires replicability, wrong answers and misplaced emphases eventually save time because they represent an avenue of investigation that was tried and proved fruitless. Science thus becomes a self-correcting process, working toward the realization of objective truths about nature. The evolutionary origin of the diversity of life on Earth today appears to be one of those objective truths. Many authors have a particular theoretical perspective they wish to champion. This statement is especially true of the scholarship in paleoanthropology