Understanding Our Environment

by Harrison, Roy M.

• ISBN13: 9780854045846
• ISBN10: 0854045848
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1999-02-01
• Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry

Summary

As an introductory text aimed at those having little background knowledge of the field and requiring only a modest background in science, Understanding our Environment is unparalleled. This third edition enhances the standing of the title by developing a more international approach. Bridging all the important environmental media such as the atmosphere, fresh waters, oceans and solid earth, it also emphasises the inter-linkages between these media. The major human and environmental impacts of pollution are summarised, and case studies are included as illustrations of the measures needed for control. Worked examples and questions are included to facilitate both teaching and learning of the subject. This book will be essential reading for students in environmental science and related areas, as well as scientists and engineers in industry, public service and consultancy who require a basic understanding of environmental processes.

Table of Contents

Contributors	xvi
Introduction	1	(8)
Roy M. Harrison
The Environmental Sciences	1	(2)
The Chemicals of Interest	3	(2)
Units of Concentration	5	(2)
The Environment as a Whole	7	(1)
Bibliography	7	(2)
The Atmosphere	9	(62)
A. G. Clarke
A. S. Tomlin
The Global Atmosphere	9	(16)
The Structure of the Atmosphere	9	(1)
Troposphere and Stratosphere	9	(1)
Atmospheric Circulation	10	(1)
The Boundary Layer	11	(1)
Greenhouse Gases and the Global Climate	12	(1)
The Global Energy Balance	12	(2)
The Carbon Dioxide Cycle	14	(1)
Global Warming	14	(3)
Climate Change	17	(1)
International Response	18	(1)
Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone	19	(1)
The Ozone Layer	19	(1)
Ozone Depletion	20	(1)
The Antarctic Ozone `Hole'	21	(3)
Effects of International Control Measures	24	(1)
Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion of Pollutants	25	(10)
Wind Speed and Direction	25	(3)
Atmospheric Stability	28	(1)
The Lapse Rate	28	(2)
Temperature Inversions	30	(1)
Dispersion from Chimneys	31	(1)
Ground-level Concentrations	31	(1)
Plume Rise	32	(1)
Time Dependence of Average Concentrations	33	(1)
Mathematical Modelling of Dispersion	33	(2)
Emissions to Atmosphere and Air Quality	35	(18)
Natural Emissions	35	(1)
Introduction	35	(1)
Sulfur Species	36	(1)
Nitrogen Species	37	(1)
Hydrocarbons	38	(1)
Emissions of Primary Pollutants	38	(1)
Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbons	38	(2)
Nitrogen Oxides	40	(1)
Sulfur Dioxide	41	(1)
Particulate Matter	41	(2)
Emissions Limits	43	(1)
Emissions Inventories	43	(1)
Air Quality	44	(1)
Air Quality Standards	44	(1)
Air Quality Monitoring	44	(3)
Air Quality Trends	47	(1)
Vehicular Emissions---CO and Hydrocarbons	47	(1)
Nitrogen Oxides	48	(2)
Sulfur Oxides	50	(1)
Vehicular Particulates	51	(1)
Heavy Metals	52	(1)
Toxic Organic Micropollutants (TOMPS)	52	(1)
Gas Phase Reactions and Photochemical Ozone	53	(6)
Gas Phase Chemistry in the Troposphere	53	(1)
Atmospheric Photochemistry and Oxidation	53	(3)
Ozone	56	(2)
Trends in Ozone Levels	58	(1)
Particles and Acid Deposition	59	(12)
Particle Formation and Properties	59	(1)
Particle Formation	59	(1)
Particle Composition	60	(1)
Deliquescent Behaviour	60	(1)
Optical Properties	61	(1)
Droplets and Aqueous Phase Chemistry	62	(1)
Deposition Mechanisms	63	(1)
Dry Deposition of Gases	63	(1)
Wet Deposition	64	(1)
Deposition of Particles	65	(1)
Acid Rain	66	(1)
Rainwater Composition	66	(1)
The Effects	67	(1)
Patterns of Deposition and Critical Loads Assessment	68	(1)
Questions	69	(2)
Freshwater	71	(68)
John G. Farmer
Margaret C. Graham
Introduction	71	(3)
Fundamentals of Aquatic Chemistry	74	(32)
Introduction	74	(1)
Concentration and Activity	74	(1)
Ionic Strength	75	(2)
Equilibria and Equilibrium Constants	77	(2)
Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions	79	(1)
Physical and Chemical Weathering Processes	79	(2)
Solubility	81	(1)
Influence of Organic Matter	81	(1)
Complexation Reactions in Freshwaters	82	(1)
Outer and Inner Sphere Complexes	82	(1)
Hydrolysis	82	(1)
Inorganic Complexes	83	(1)
Surface Complex Formation	84	(1)
Organic Complexes	84	(1)
Species Distribution in Freshwaters	85	(1)
pH as a Master Variable	85	(12)
pε as a Master Variable	97	(3)
pε - pH Relationships	100	(6)
Modelling Aquatic Systems	106	(1)
Case Studies	106	(28)
Acidification	106	(1)
Diatom Records	106	(1)
Aluminium	107	(1)
Acid Mine Drainage and Ochreous Deposits	108	(1)
Acid Mine Drainage and the Release of Heavy Metals	109	(3)
Metals in Water	112	(1)
Arsenic in Groundwater	112	(1)
Lead in Drinking Water	113	(1)
Cadmium in Irrigation Water	114	(1)
Selenium in Irrigation Water	115	(2)
Aquatic Contamination by Gold Ore Extractants	117	(2)
Historical Pollution Records and Perturbatory Processes in Lakes	119	(1)
Records---Lead in Lake Sediments	119	(1)
Perturbatory Processes in Lake Sediments	119	(4)
Onondaga Lake	123	(2)
Nutrients in Water and Sediments	125	(1)
Phosphorus and Eutrophication	125	(4)
Nitrate in Groundwater	129	(1)
Organic Matter and Organic Chemicals in Water	130	(1)
BOD and COD	130	(1)
Synthetic Organic Chemicals	131	(3)
Treatment	134	(5)
Purification of Water Supplies	134	(1)
Waste Treatment	135	(1)
Questions	136	(2)
Further Reading	138	(1)
The Oceanic Environment	139	(60)
Stephen J. de Mora
Introduction	139	(11)
The Ocean as a Biogeochemical Environment	139	(3)
Properties of Water and Seawater	142	(4)
Salinity Concepts	146	(2)
Oceanic Circulation	148	(2)
Seawater Composition and Chemistry	150	(27)
Major Constituents	150	(3)
Dissolved Gases	153	(1)
Gas Solubility and Air-Sea Exchange Processes	153	(2)
Oxygen	155	(3)
Carbon Dioxide and Alkalinity	158	(7)
Dimethyl Sulfide and Climatic Implications	165	(2)
Nutrients	167	(2)
Trace Elements	169	(2)
Physico-chemical Speciation	171	(6)
Suspended Particles and Marine Sediments	177	(9)
Description of Sediments and Sedimentary Components	177	(4)
Surface Chemistry of Particles	181	(1)
Surface Charge	181	(1)
Adsorption Processes	182	(1)
Ion Exchange Reactions	183	(1)
Role of Surface Chemistry in Biogeochemical Cycling	184	(1)
Diagenesis	185	(1)
Physical and Chemical Processes in Estuaries	186	(4)
Marine Contamination and Pollution	190	(9)
Oil Slicks	191	(2)
Plastic Debris	193	(1)
Tributyltin	194	(3)
Questions	197	(2)
Land Contamination and Reclamation	199	(38)
B. J. Alloway
Introduction	199	(2)
Soil: Its Formation, Constituents, and Properties	201	(11)
Soil Formation	202	(1)
Soil Constituents	203	(1)
The Mineral Fraction	204	(1)
Soil Organic Matter	205	(1)
Soil Properties	206	(1)
Soil Permeability	206	(1)
Soil Chemical Properties	207	(3)
Adsorption and Decomposition of Organic Contaminants	210	(2)
Sources of Land Contaminants	212	(2)
Characteristics of Some Major Groups of Land Contaminants	214	(5)
Heavy Metals	214	(1)
Organic Contaminants	215	(3)
Sewage Sludge	218	(1)
Possible Hazards from Contaminated Land	219	(1)
Methods of Site Investigation	220	(3)
Interpretation of Site Investigation Data	223	(3)
Reclamation of Contaminated Land	226	(4)
Ex Situ Methods	226	(1)
`Dig and Dump'	226	(1)
Soil Cleaning	226	(1)
In Situ Methods	227	(1)
Physico-chemical Methods	227	(2)
Biological Methods	229	(1)
Specific Techniques for Gasworks Sites	230	(1)
Case Studies	230	(5)
Gasworks Sites	230	(2)
Soil Contamination by Landfilling and Waste Disposal	232	(1)
Heavy Metal Contamination from Metalliferous Mining and Smelting	233	(1)
Heavy Metal Contamination of Domestic Garden Soils in Urban Areas	234	(1)
Land Contamination by Solvents, PCBs, and Dioxins Following a Fire at an Industrial Plant	235	(1)
Conclusions	235	(2)
Questions	236	(1)
Environmental Cycling of Pollutants	237	(30)
Roy M. Harrison
Introduction: Biogeochemical Cycling	237	(7)
Environmental Reservoirs	239	(1)
Lifetimes	240	(3)
Influence of Lifetime on Environmental Behaviour	243	(1)
Rates of Transfer Between Environmental Compartments	244	(10)
Air--Land Exchange	244	(3)
Air--Sea Exchange	247	(7)
Transfer in Aquatic Systems	254	(3)
Biogeochemical Cycles	257	(7)
The Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen	259	(1)
Aspects of the Biogeochemical Cycle of Lead	260	(4)
Environmental Partitioning of Long-lived Species	264	(3)
Questions	265	(2)
Environmental Monitoring Strategies	267	(64)
C. Nicholas Hewitt
Robert Allott
Objectives of Monitoring	267	(2)
Types of Monitoring	269	(22)
Source Monitoring	271	(1)
General Objectives	271	(1)
Stationary Source Sampling for Gaseous Emissions	271	(1)
Mobile Source Sampling for Gaseous Effluents	271	(1)
Source Monitoring for Liquid Effluents	272	(1)
Source Monitoring for Solid Effluents	272	(2)
Ambient Environment Monitoring	274	(1)
General Objectives	274	(1)
Ambient Air Monitoring	274	(5)
Environmental Water Monitoring	279	(6)
Sediment, Soil, and Biological Monitoring	285	(6)
Sampling Methods	291	(12)
Air Sampling Methods	291	(1)
Intake Design	291	(2)
Sample Collection	293	(7)
Flow Measurements and Air Moving Devices	300	(1)
Water Sampling Methods	300	(2)
Soil and Sediment Sampling Methods	302	(1)
Modelling of Environmental Dispersion	303	(8)
Atmospheric Dispersal	305	(4)
Aquatic Mixing	309	(2)
Variability in Soil and Sediment Pollutant Levels	311	(1)
Duration and Extent of Survey	311	(5)
Duration of Survey and Frequency of Sampling	311	(4)
Methods of Reducing Sampling Frequency	315	(1)
Number of Sampling Sites	316	(1)
Prerequisites for Monitoring	316	(8)
Monitoring Protocol	317	(1)
Meteorological Data	318	(1)
Source Inventory	319	(1)
Suitability of Analytical Techniques	320	(2)
Environmental Quality Standards	322	(2)
Remote Sensing of Pollutant	324	(2)
Presentation of Data	326	(5)
Questions	328	(3)
Ecological and Health Effects of Chemical Pollution	331	(66)
S. Smith
Introduction	331	(2)
Toxicity: Exposure-Response Relationships	333	(3)
Exposure	336	(3)
Absorption	339	(3)
Internal Pathways	342	(5)
Ecological Risk Assessment	347	(2)
Individuals, Populations, and Communities and the Role of Biomarkers	349	(9)
Health Effects of the Major Air Pollutants	358	(4)
Effect of Air Pollution on Plants	362	(4)
Ecological Effects of Acid Deposition	366	(7)
Forest Decline	373	(1)
Effects of Pollutants on Reproduction and Development: Evidence of Endocrine Disruption	374	(9)
Eggshell Thinning	375	(2)
GLEMEDS	377	(1)
Marine Mammals	378	(1)
Imposex in Gastropods	379	(1)
Endocrine Disruptors	380	(3)
Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment	383	(5)
Health Effectsof Metal Pollution	388	(6)
Mercury	388	(3)
Lead	391	(3)
Conclusion	394	(3)
Questions	395	(2)
Managing Environmental Quality	397	(40)
Andrew Skinner
Introduction	397	(3)
Objectives, Standards, and Limits	400	(13)
Environmental Objectives	400	(1)
Environmental Standards	401	(1)
Emission Limits	402	(2)
Integrating Limit Values and Quality Standards	404	(1)
Use-related Approach	404	(1)
Uniform Emission Standards	405	(1)
Sectoral Approach	405	(1)
Specifying Standards	405	(6)
Remediation Targets	411	(2)
The Principles of No Deterioration and Precaution	413	(1)
Legislation to Control and Prevent Pollution	413	(7)
Origins of Pollution Control Legislation	414	(1)
Trends in European Environmental Legislation	415	(2)
Reporting Environmental Performance	417	(1)
Pollution Control and Land Use Planning	418	(2)
Pollution Control Agencies	420	(7)
Structure and Organization of Pollution Control Agencies	420	(2)
Forestalling Pollution	422	(4)
Other Regulatory Action	426	(1)
Economic Instruments for Managing Pollution	427	(5)
Alternatives to Pollution Regulation by Permit	427	(3)
Tradeable Permits	430	(2)
Public and Commercial Pressures to Improve the Environment	432	(5)
Environmental Management Systems	432	(2)
Public Opinion and the Environment	434	(1)
Questions	435	(2)
Subject Index	437