Vertebrates : Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution

by Kardong, Kenneth V.

• ISBN13: 9780072528305
• ISBN10: 0072528303
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-05-02
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math

Summary

This one-semester text is designed for an upper-level majors course. Vertebrates features a unique emphasis on function and evolution of vertebrates, complete anatomical detail, and excellent pedagogy. Vertebrate groups are organized phylogenetically, and their systems discussed within such a context. Morphology is foremost, but the author has developed and integrated an understanding of function and evolution into the discussion of anatomy of the various systems.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Introduction	1	(46)
Comparative Verrtebrate Morphology	1	(2)
Designs of Students	2	(1)
Vertebrate Design---Form and Function	3	(1)
Grand Design	3	(1)
Historical Predecessors---Evolution	3	(7)
The Process behind the Change	4	(1)
Linnaeus	4	(1)
Naturalists	5	(1)
J-B. de Lamarck	5	(1)
Acquired Characteristics	6	(1)
Upward to Perfection	6	(1)
Natural Selection	7	(1)
A. R. Wallace	7	(1)
Charles Darwin	8	(1)
Critics and Controversy	9	(1)
Historical Predecessors---Morphology	10	(3)
Georges Cuvier	10	(1)
Richard Owen	11	(2)
Why Are There No Flying Elephants?	13	(1)
Morphological Concepts	14	(4)
Similarities	14	(2)
Symmetry	16	(1)
Segmentation	16	(2)
Evolutionary Morphology	18	(2)
Function and Biological Role	18	(1)
Preadaptation	18	(2)
Evolution as Remodeling	20	(1)
Phylogeny	20	(7)
Of Bean Stalks and Bushes	20	(2)
Simplification	22	(1)
Patterns of Phylogeny	22	(1)
Grades and Clades	23	(4)
Paleontology	27	(12)
Fossilization and Fossils	27	(3)
Recovery and Restoration	30	(3)
From Animal to Fossil	33	(2)
Dating Fossils	35	(1)
Stratigraphy	35	(1)
Index Fossils	35	(1)
Radiometric Dating	35	(1)
Geological Ages	35	(4)
Tools of the Trade	39	(6)
The Question	39	(1)
The Function	40	(3)
The Biological Role	43	(2)
Overview	45	(2)
Origin of Chordates	47	(33)
Chordate Phylogeny	47	(2)
Chordate Characteristics	49	(4)
Notochord	49	(2)
Pharyngeal Slits	51	(1)
Endostyle or Thyroid Gland	52	(1)
Dorsal and Tubular Nerve Cord	52	(1)
Postanal Tail	52	(1)
Chordate Body Plan	52	(1)
Protochordates	53	(18)
Hemichordata	54	(1)
Enteropneusta---``Acorn Worms''	55	(2)
Pterobranchia	57	(1)
Hemichordate Phylogenetic Affinities	58	(1)
Urochordata	58	(2)
Ascidiacea---``Sea Squirts''	60	(1)
Larvacea (Appendicularia)	61	(3)
Thaliacea	64	(1)
Cephalochordata	65	(5)
Overview of Protochordates	70	(1)
Chordate Origins	71	(6)
Cephalochordates from Annelids and Arthropods	71	(1)
Cephalochordates from Echinoderms	72	(1)
The Evidence	72	(1)
Appearance of Chordate Characteristics	73	(1)
Selective Advantage	73	(1)
Larval Echinoderm to Chordate Tadpole	74	(1)
The Critics	75	(1)
Phylogeny, Paedomorphism, and Origins	75	(2)
Overview	77	(3)
The Vertebrate Story	80	(45)
Introduction	80	(4)
Innovations	81	(1)
Vertebral Column	81	(1)
Head	82	(1)
Origin of Vertebrates	82	(1)
Step 1: Prevertebrate	82	(1)
Step 2: Agnathan	83	(1)
Step 3: Gnathostome	83	(1)
The Controversial Calcichordates	84	(1)
Vertebrate Classification	84	(1)
Agnathans	84	(8)
Living Agnathans	86	(1)
Myxinoidea	86	(1)
Petromyzontida	86	(1)
Early Vertebrate Fossils	86	(1)
Conodonts	87	(2)
Ostracoderms	89	(1)
Pteraspidomorpha	89	(1)
Other Ostracoderms	89	(2)
Overview of Agnathan Evolution	91	(1)
Gnathostomes	92	(4)
Placodermi	93	(1)
Chondrichthyes	93	(2)
Elasmobranchii---Sharks and Rays	95	(1)
Holocephali---Chimaeras	95	(1)
Teleostomi	96	(5)
Acanthodii	96	(1)
Osteichthyes	96	(2)
Actinopterygii	98	(1)
Sarcopterygii	99	(2)
Overview of Fish Phylogeny	101	(1)
Tetrapods	101	(5)
Primitive Tetrapods	102	(1)
Labyrinthodonts	102	(2)
Lepospondyls	104	(1)
Lissamphibia-Modern Amphibians	105	(1)
Urodela (Caudata)	105	(1)
Salientia (Anura)	106	(1)
Gymnophiona (Apoda)	106	(1)
Amniotes	106	(19)
Stem--Amniotes	108	(1)
Sauropsids	108	(1)
Mesosaurs	108	(1)
Reptilia	108	(8)
Synapsida	116	(1)
Pelycosauria	117	(1)
Therapsida	117	(3)
Mammalia	120	(5)
Biological Design	125	(33)
Introduction: Size and Shape	125	(3)
Size	128	(3)
Relationships among Length, Area, and Volume	128	(2)
Surface Area	130	(1)
Volume and Mass	130	(1)
Shape	131	(3)
Allometry	131	(1)
Transformation Grids	132	(2)
On the Consequences of Being the Right Size	134	(1)
Biomechanics	134	(18)
Fundamental Principles	135	(1)
Basic Quantities---Length, Time, and Mass	135	(1)
Units	136	(1)
Derived Quantities---Velocity, Acceleration, Force, and Relatives	136	(1)
Reference Systems	137	(1)
Center of Mass	137	(1)
Vectors	137	(1)
Basic Force Laws	138	(1)
Free Bodies and Forces	138	(1)
Torques and Levers	139	(2)
Land and Fluid	141	(1)
Life on Land: Gravity	141	(1)
Life in Fluids	142	(2)
Machines	144	(1)
Strength of Materials	145	(1)
Loads	146	(1)
Biological Design and Biological Failure	146	(1)
Tissue Response to Mechanical Stress	147	(1)
Responsiveness of Bone	148	(4)
Biophysics and Other Physical Processes	152	(4)
Diffusion and Exchange	152	(1)
Pressures and Partial Pressures	152	(1)
Countercurrent, Concurrent, and Crosscurrent Exchange	153	(1)
Optics	154	(1)
Depth Perception	155	(1)
Accommodation	155	(1)
Overview	156	(2)
Life History	158	(51)
Introduction	158	(1)
Early Embryology	159	(13)
Fertilization	159	(2)
Cleavage	161	(1)
Amphioxus	161	(1)
Fishes	162	(1)
Amphibians	162	(1)
Reptiles and Birds	162	(1)
Mammals	163	(1)
Overview of Cleavage	164	(1)
Gastrulation and Neurulation	164	(2)
Amphioxus	166	(1)
Fishes	166	(1)
Amphibians	167	(1)
Reptiles and Birds	168	(1)
Mammals	169	(3)
Organogenesis	172	(14)
Histogenesis	174	(1)
Epithelium	174	(2)
Covering and Lining Epithelium	176	(1)
Glandular Epithelium	176	(1)
Connective Tissues	177	(1)
General Connective Tissues	177	(1)
Special Connective Tissues	178	(1)
Bone Development and Growth	179	(1)
Endochondral Bone Development	179	(2)
Intramembranous Bone Development	181	(1)
Comparative Bone Histology	181	(2)
Bone Remodeling and Repair	183	(1)
Joints	184	(2)
Neural Crest and Ectodermal Placodes	186	(1)
Extraembryonic Membranes	186	(3)
Reptiles and Birds	187	(1)
Mammals	187	(1)
Eutherian Placenta	188	(1)
Other Placentae	189	(1)
Overview of Early Embryonic Development	189	(2)
Development of the Coelom and Its Compartments	191	(3)
Maturation	194	(3)
Metamorphosis	194	(1)
Heterochrony	195	(1)
Peramorphosis	195	(2)
Paedomorphosis	197	(1)
Ontogeny and Phylogeny	197	(9)
Biogenetic Law	197	(1)
von Baer's Law	198	(1)
Overview of the Biogenetic Law	199	(1)
Hox Genes and Their Kingdoms	200	(1)
Egg to Adult	200	(1)
Shaping Up: Positions and Parts	201	(1)
Evolutionary Significance	201	(1)
Epigenomics	202	(1)
Induction	202	(1)
Phylogeny	203	(3)
Overview	206	(3)
Integument	209	(25)
Embryonic Origin	210	(1)
General Features of the Integument	210	(3)
Dermis	210	(2)
Epidermis	212	(1)
Phylogeny	213	(12)
Integument of Fishes	213	(1)
Primitive Fishes	214	(1)
Chondrichthyes	214	(1)
Bony Fishes	214	(2)
Integument of Tetrapods	216	(1)
Amphibians	216	(1)
Reptiles	217	(1)
Birds	218	(3)
Mammals	221	(4)
Specializations of the Integument	225	(5)
Nails, Claws, Hooves	225	(1)
Horns and Antlers	226	(1)
Baleen	227	(1)
Scales	228	(1)
Dermal Armor	228	(1)
Mucus	228	(1)
Color	229	(1)
Overview	230	(4)
Skeletal System: The Skull	234	(55)
Introduction	235	(1)
Chondrocranium	235	(3)
Embryology	235	(3)
Splanchnocranium	238	(4)
Embryology	238	(1)
Origin of Jaws	239	(1)
Types of Jaw Attachments	240	(2)
Dermatocranium	242	(1)
Parts of the Dermatocranium	242	(1)
Dermal Bone Series	242	(1)
Overview of Skull Morphology	243	(3)
Braincase	243	(3)
Jaws	246	(1)
Hyoid Apparatus	246	(1)
Cranial Kinesis	246	(1)
Phylogeny of the Skull	247	(28)
Agnathans	247	(1)
Ostracoderms	247	(1)
Cyclostomes	248	(1)
Gnathostomes	249	(1)
Fishes	249	(7)
Early Tetrapods	256	(2)
Primitive Amniotes	258	(2)
Modern Reptiles	260	(5)
Birds	265	(2)
Synapsids	267	(8)
Overview of Skull Function and Design	275	(5)
Prey Capture	277	(1)
Feeding in Water	277	(3)
Feeding in Air	280	(1)
Swallowing	280	(1)
Overview	280	(9)
Cranial Neural Crest	280	(1)
Emergence of Mammals	281	(1)
Evolutionary Modifications of Immature Forms: Akinesis in Mammals	282	(3)
Composite Skull	285	(4)
Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton	289	(31)
Introduction	289	(1)
Basic Components	290	(6)
Vertebrae	290	(1)
Regions of the Vertebral Column	290	(1)
Centra	290	(2)
Ribs	292	(2)
Sternum	294	(1)
Gastralia	294	(2)
Embryonic Development	296	(2)
Fishes	296	(1)
Tetrapods	297	(1)
Phylogeny	298	(13)
Fishes	298	(1)
Agnathans	298	(1)
Gnathostomes	298	(5)
Tetrapods	303	(1)
Early Tetrapods	303	(5)
Amniotes	308	(3)
Form and Function	311	(7)
Fluid Environment	311	(1)
Terrestrial Environment	312	(1)
Design of Vertebrae	313	(1)
Direction of the Neural Spine	313	(1)
Height of the Neural Spine	314	(1)
Regionalization of the Vertebral Column	315	(3)
Overview	318	(2)
Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton	320	(45)
Introduction	320	(1)
Basic Components	321	(1)
Fins	321	(1)
Limbs	321	(1)
Origin of Paired Fins	322	(3)
Gill-Arch Theory	322	(1)
Fin-Fold Theory	323	(1)
Embryonic Development of Tetrapod Limbs	324	(1)
Phylogeny	325	(11)
Fishes	325	(1)
Agnathans	325	(1)
Placoderms	326	(1)
Chondrichthyans	326	(2)
Acanthodians	328	(1)
Bony Fishes	328	(2)
Tetrapods	330	(1)
Pectoral Girdle	330	(3)
Pelvic Girdle	333	(1)
Manus and Pes	333	(3)
Evolution of the Appendicular System	336	(6)
Dual Origin of the Pectoral Girdle	336	(1)
Adaptive Advantage of Lobe Fins	337	(4)
Onto the Land	341	(1)
Form and Function	342	(20)
Swimming	342	(1)
Terrestrial Locomotion	342	(1)
Early Gaits	342	(1)
Early Modes of Locomotion	343	(4)
Cursorial Locomotion	347	(3)
Aerial Locomotion	350	(10)
Origin of Bird Flight	360	(1)
Fossorial Locomotion	360	(2)
Overview	362	(3)
The Muscular System	365	(41)
Introduction	365	(1)
Organization of Muscles	366	(5)
Classification of Muscles	366	(1)
Skeletal Muscle	367	(1)
Cardiac Muscle	368	(1)
Smooth Muscle	368	(1)
Structure of Skeletal Muscles	368	(2)
Tendons	370	(1)
Basis of Muscle Contraction	370	(1)
Resting and Active Muscle	370	(1)
Molecular Mechanisms of Contraction	370	(1)
Muscle Function	371	(13)
Muscle Fibers	371	(1)
Tension-Length Curves for a Single Muscle Fiber	371	(1)
Properties of Muscle Fibers	371	(2)
Muscle Organs and Fibers	373	(1)
Whole Muscle Force Generation	373	(1)
Tension-Length Curves for a Whole Muscle	374	(2)
Graded Force	376	(1)
Cross-Sectional Area	376	(1)
Fiber Orientation	377	(1)
Velocity of Shortening	377	(1)
Distance of Shortening	378	(1)
Bone-Muscle Lever Systems	378	(2)
Sequencing of Muscle Actions	380	(1)
Overview of Muscle Mechanics	381	(1)
Muscle Actions	381	(2)
Muscle Homologies	383	(1)
Embryonic Origin of Muscles	384	(3)
Postcranial Musculature	384	(1)
Appendicular Musculature	384	(1)
Axial Musculature	385	(1)
Cranial Musculature	386	(1)
Jaw and Pharyngeal Musculature	386	(1)
Extrinsic Eye Muscles	386	(1)
Comparative Anatomy	387	(14)
Postcranial Musculature	387	(1)
Axial Musculature	387	(3)
Appendicular Musculature	390	(6)
Cranial Musculature	396	(1)
Branchiomeric Musculature	396	(4)
Hypobranchial Musculature	400	(1)
Overview	401	(5)
The Respiratory System	406	(39)
Introduction	406	(3)
Respiratory Organs	409	(5)
Gills	409	(1)
Lungs	409	(1)
Gas Bladders	409	(1)
Cutaneous Respiratory Organs	410	(1)
Accessory Air-breathing Organs	410	(1)
Breathing and Embryos	411	(3)
Ventilatory Mechanisms	414	(3)
Cilia	414	(1)
Muscular Mechanisms	414	(1)
Water Ventilation: Dual Pump	414	(1)
Air Ventilation: Buccal Pump	415	(1)
Air Ventilation: Aspiration Pump	416	(1)
Phylogeny	417	(15)
Agnathans	417	(2)
Elasmobranchs	419	(1)
Bony Fishes	420	(1)
Overview of Fish Respiration	420	(1)
Gills	420	(1)
Lungs and Gas Bladders	421	(2)
Amphibians	423	(1)
Amphibian Larvae	423	(2)
Amphibian Adults	425	(1)
Reptiles	426	(1)
Mammals	427	(1)
Ventilation	428	(1)
Gas Exchange	429	(1)
Birds	430	(2)
Form and Function	432	(5)
Patterns of Gas Transfer	432	(1)
Rates of Gas Transfer	433	(4)
Breathing in Water	437	(1)
Breathing in Air	437	(1)
Evolution of Respiratory Organs	437	(5)
Acid-Base Regulation	437	(1)
Ventilation	438	(1)
Ciliary Pumps	438	(1)
Muscular Pumps	439	(1)
Water-to-Land Transition	439	(1)
Air-breathing Organs	439	(1)
Advantages of Movement to Land	439	(1)
Air-breathing Mechanisms	440	(1)
Bird Lungs and Air Sacs	441	(1)
Overview	442	(3)
The Circulatory System	445	(51)
Introduction	445	(1)
Cardiovascular System	446	(42)
Blood	446	(1)
Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries	446	(1)
Arteries	447	(1)
Hemodynamics of Circulation	447	(1)
Veins	448	(1)
Microcirculation	448	(1)
Single and Double Circulation	449	(1)
Embryonic Development of the Cardiovascular System	450	(1)
Phylogeny of the Cardiovascular System	451	(4)
Arterial Vessels	455	(5)
Venous Vessels	460	(7)
Hearts	467	(1)
Basic Vertebrate Heart	467	(2)
Fishes	469	(3)
Amphibians	472	(2)
Reptiles	474	(7)
Birds and Mammals	481	(1)
Cardiovascular System: Matching Design to Environmental Demands	481	(3)
Accessory Air-breathing Organs	484	(1)
Diving Birds and Mammals	484	(1)
Heart Flow	484	(1)
Ontogeny of Cardiovascular Function	485	(1)
Fetal Circulation in Placental Mammals	485	(1)
Changes at Birth	485	(2)
Heat Transfer	487	(1)
Lymphatic System	488	(4)
Lymphatic Vessels	489	(2)
Lymphatic Tissue	491	(1)
Form and Function	491	(1)
Overview	492	(4)
The Digestive System	496	(42)
Introduction	496	(1)
Preview	497	(1)
Components of the Digestive System	497	(31)
Buccal Cavity	497	(1)
Boundaries	497	(1)
Palate	498	(1)
Teeth	499	(10)
Tongue	509	(1)
Pharynx	510	(3)
Alimentary Canal	513	(2)
Esophagus	515	(1)
Stomach	515	(1)
Intestines	516	(2)
Cloaca	518	(1)
Specializations of the Alimentary Canal	518	(2)
Vascularization of the Gastrointestinal Tract	520	(1)
Fishes	520	(1)
Tetrapods	521	(3)
Associated Glands of Digestion	524	(1)
Oral Glands	524	(2)
Liver	526	(1)
Pancreas	527	(1)
Function and Evolution of the Digestive System	528	(7)
Absorption	528	(1)
Feces	528	(1)
Mechanical Breakdown of Food	529	(1)
Mastication	529	(1)
Gizzards	529	(1)
Chemical Breakdown of Food	529	(1)
Gastric Fermentation	530	(3)
Intestinal Fermentation	533	(1)
Gastric versus Intestinal Fermenters	533	(2)
Size and Fermentation	535	(1)
Digesting Toxins	535	(1)
Overview	535	(3)
The Urogenital System	538	(47)
Introduction	538	(1)
Urinary System	538	(18)
Structure of the Mammalian Kidney	538	(2)
Embryonic Development	540	(1)
Nephrotome to Nephric Tubules	540	(1)
Tripartite Concept of Kidney Organization	541	(3)
Kidney Phylogeny	544	(1)
Fishes	544	(1)
Tetrapods	545	(1)
Kidney Function and Structure	546	(1)
Excretion: Removing the Products of Nitrogen Metabolism	546	(2)
Osmoregulation: Regulating Water and Salt Balance	548	(7)
Evolution	555	(1)
Preadaptation	555	(1)
Origin of Vertebrates	555	(1)
Reproductive System	556	(27)
Structure of the Mammalian Reproductive System	556	(1)
Embryonic Development	556	(1)
Gonads and Gametes	556	(2)
Reproductive Tracts	558	(1)
Overview	558	(2)
Female Reproductive System	560	(1)
Ovary	560	(1)
Genital Ducts	560	(2)
Oviduct	562	(1)
Uterus	563	(2)
Male Reproductive System	565	(1)
Testis	565	(1)
Genital Ducts	565	(3)
Copulatory Organs	568	(4)
Cloaca	572	(5)
Urinary Bladder	577	(1)
Function and Evolution	578	(1)
Potency and Fertility	578	(1)
External and Internal Fertilization	579	(2)
Delays in Gestation	581	(2)
Overview	583	(2)
The Endocrine System	585	(33)
Survey of Endocrine Organs	585	(20)
Thyroid Gland	585	(1)
Structure and Phylogeny	585	(2)
Function	587	(2)
Ultimobranchial Body and Parathyroid Gland	589	(1)
Ultimobranchial Body	589	(1)
Parathyroid Gland	589	(2)
Form and Function	591	(1)
Adrenal Gland	591	(1)
Structure and Phylogeny	591	(3)
Function	594	(1)
Pancreatic Islets	595	(1)
Structure and Phylogeny	595	(1)
Function	595	(2)
Pituitary Gland	597	(1)
Structure	597	(1)
Phylogeny	597	(3)
Function	600	(3)
Gonads	603	(1)
Pineal Gland	603	(1)
Secondary Endocrine Organs	603	(1)
Gastrointestinal Tract	604	(1)
Kidneys	604	(1)
Endocrine Coordination	605	(10)
Mammalian Reproduction	605	(1)
Male	605	(1)
Female	606	(6)
Metamorphosis in Frogs	612	(1)
Fundamentals of Hormonal Control	613	(1)
Functional and Structural Linkage	613	(1)
Target Tissue Responses	614	(1)
The Endocrine System and the Environment	614	(1)
Evolution	615	(1)
Overview	616	(2)
The Nervous System	618	(45)
Introduction	618	(3)
Types of Cells within the Nervous System	618	(1)
Neuroglia	618	(1)
Neurons	619	(1)
Transmission of Information	619	(2)
Neurosecretory Cells	621	(1)
Peripheral Nervous System	621	(17)
Spinal Nerves	622	(1)
Cranial Nerves	623	(7)
Evolution	630	(2)
Functions of the Peripheral Nervous System	632	(1)
Spinal Reflexes	632	(1)
The Autonomic Nervous System	633	(5)
Central Nervous System	638	(22)
Embryology	639	(1)
Spinal Cord	639	(3)
Spinal Reflexes	642	(1)
Spinal Tracts	642	(1)
Brain	643	(1)
Phylogeny	643	(1)
Form and Function	644	(14)
Functional Associations of Parts of the Central Nervous System	658	(2)
Overview	660	(3)
Sensory Organs	663	(43)
Introduction	663	(1)
Components of a Sensory Organ	664	(1)
General Sensory Organs	664	(2)
Free Sensory Receptors	664	(1)
Encapsulated Sensory Receptors	665	(1)
Associated Sensory Receptors	665	(1)
Proprioception	665	(1)
Mechanisms of Perceiving Stimuli from General Sensory Receptors	666	(1)
Special Sensory Organs	666	(35)
Chemoreceptors	666	(1)
Nasal Passages	667	(2)
Vomeronasal Area	669	(1)
Mouth	670	(1)
Radiation Receptors	671	(2)
Photoreceptors	673	(11)
Infrared Receptors	684	(1)
Mechanoreceptors	684	(1)
Lateral Line System	685	(1)
Vestibular Apparatus	686	(2)
Auditory System	688	(1)
Functions of the Ear	689	(9)
Electroreceptors	698	(1)
Structure and Phylogeny	698	(1)
Form and Function	699	(2)
Additional Special Sensory Organs	701	(1)
Overview	701	(5)
Conclusions	706	(19)
Introduction	706	(3)
Structural Analysis	709	(1)
Functional Analysis	710	(4)
How Does It Work?	710	(1)
Functional Coupling, Functional Compromise	711	(1)
Multiple Functions	712	(1)
Performance	713	(1)
Ecological Analysis	714	(1)
Evolutionary Analysis	714	(5)
Historical Constraints	714	(1)
Primitive and Advanced	714	(1)
Diversity of Type/Unity of Pattern	715	(2)
Mosaic Evolution	717	(1)
Morphology and Modules	717	(2)
Mode and Tempo of Evolution	719	(3)
Remodeling	720	(1)
Embryonic Changes	721	(1)
Hox Genes	721	(1)
Evolutionary Significance	722	(1)
The Promise of Vertebrate Morphology	722	(3)
Appendix A	725	(2)
Appendix B	727	(3)
Appendix C	730	(4)
Appendix D	734	(4)
Glossary	738	(14)
Credits	752	(5)
Index	757