Water Reuse for Irrigation: Agriculture, Landscapes, and Turf Grass

by Lazarova; Valentina

• ISBN13: 9781566706490
• ISBN10: 1566706491
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-12-28
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Water reuse programs worldwide face a number of technical, economic, and regulatory challenges related to the long-term environmental, agronomic, and health impacts of the recycling of reclaimed water. Also, the economic benefit of water reuse in irrigation is difficult to determine, and must be weighed against environmental costs, making the decisions of wastewater engineers, administrators, and planners even more difficult.Water Reuse for Irrigation: Agriculture, Landscapes, and Turf Grass provides guidelines that facilitate the successful planning and operation of water reuse projects. Offering the needed information, analysis, and proven experience for agricultural and landscape irrigation, this volume bridges the gap between fundamental science and relatively uncharted areas of economic, institutional, and liability issues.It delivers a comprehensive synthesis of information recently emerging in both science and in the practice of irrigation with reclaimed water. The book compiles guidelines, recommendations, and codes of best practices from around the world for all types of recycled water uses, and it examines recent concerns about adverse effects on plants, groundwater, and public health.

Table of Contents

1. CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION WITH RECYCLED WATER
Valentina Lazarova and Takashi Asano
1.1 Managing water security by water reuse	1	(3)
1.2 Objectives and contents of this volume	4	(2)
1.3 Role of water reuse for irrigation	6	(2)
1.4 Benefits and constraints of irrigation with recycled water	8	(3)
1.5 Specifics of water reuse planning	11	(3)
1.6 International experience with irrigation using recycled water	14	(14)
1.6.1 Water reuse in Europe, the Mediterranean region, and the Middle East	18	(2)
1.6.2 Water reuse in the United States	20	(6)
1.6.3 Water reuse in Central and South America	26	(1)
1.6.4 Water reuse in Asia and Oceania	26	(2)
1.7 Management actions for improvement of irrigation with recycled water	28	(1)
References	29	(2)
2. WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS
Valentina Lazarova, Herman Bouwer, and Akiça Bahri
2.1 Introduction	31	(5)
2.2 Parameters with health significance	36	(9)
2.2.1 Chemicals	36	(4)
2.2.2 Pathogens	40	(5)
2.3 Parameters with agronomic significance	45	(10)
2.3.1 Salinity	45	(1)
2.3.2 Toxic ions	46	(2)
2.3.3 Sodium adsorption ratio	48	(1)
2.3.4 Trace elements	49	(4)
2.3.5 pH	53	(1)
2.3.6 Bicarbonate and carbonate	53	(1)
2.3.7 Nutrients	54	(1)
2.3.8 Free chlorine	55	(1)
2.4 Sampling and monitoring strategies	55	(3)
References	58	(6)
3. INTERNATIONAL HEALTH GUIDELINES AND REGULATIONS
James Crook and Valentina Lazarova
3.1 WHO guidelines for irrigation	64	(2)
3.2 USEPA guidelines for water reuse	66	(1)
3.3 California water recycling criteria	66	(7)
3.4 Other water reuse regulations	73	(3)
3.5 Standards for urban uses of recycled water and landscape irrigation	76	(3)
3.6 Standard enforcement and perspectives	79	(1)
References	80	(3)
4. CODE OF PRACTICES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION
Valentina Lazarova and Akiça Bahri
4.1 Introduction	83	(3)
4.2 Specific wastewater treatment for reuse purposes	86	(8)
4.2.1 Typical schemes used for production of recycled water for irrigation	87	(2)
4.2.2 Main disinfection processes used in water reuse systems	89	(3)
4.2.3 Requirements for recycled water storage and distribution	92	(1)
4.2.4 Requirements for reliability of operation of water reuse systems	93	(1)
4.3 Control of recycled water application	94	(2)
4.4 Restrictions on crops and public access	96	(2)
4.5 Human exposure control	98	(3)
References	101	(3)
5. CODE OF SUCCESSFUL AGRONOMIC PRACTICES
Valentina Lazarova, Ioannis Papadopoulos, and Akiça Bahri
5.1 Amount of water used for irrigation	104	(1)
5.2 General water quality guidelines for maximum crop production	105	(1)
5.3 Choice of management strategy of irrigation with recycled water	106	(2)
5.4 Selection of irrigation method	108	(15)
5.4.1 Criteria for selection of an appropriate irrigation method	108	(5)
5.4.2 Comparison of irrigation methods	113	(9)
5.4.3 Final considerations for the choice of irrigation method	122	(1)
5.5 Crop selection and management	123	(19)
5.5.1 Code of practices to overcome salinity hazards	123	(12)
5.5.2 Code of practices to overcome boron, sodium and chloride toxicity	135	(2)
5.5.3 Code of practices to overcome trace elements toxicity	137	(5)
5.6 Code of management practices of water application	142	(7)
5.6.1 Leaching and drainage	142	(3)
5.6.2 Using other water supplies	145	(1)
5.6.3 Adjusting fertilizer applications	145	(1)
5.6.4 Management of soil structure	146	(1)
5.6.5 Management of clogging in sprinkler and drip irrigation systems	147	(1)
5.6.6 Management of storage systems	148	(1)
References	149	(3)
6. CODES OF PRACTICES FOR LANDSCAPE AND GOLF COURSE IRRIGATION
Bahman Sheikh
6.1 Benefits of and constraints on the use of recycled water for landscape irrigation	152	(1)
6.2 Effects of recycled water on turfgrass	153	(1)
6.3 Best practices for golf course irrigation	153	(3)
6.4 Prevention of adverse effects of recycled water on turfgrass	156	(1)
6.5 Management of adverse effect of water reuse on soils	157	(1)
6.6 Recommendations to avoid adverse effects of water reuse on groundwater	157	(1)
6.7 Economic and financial aspects of landscape irrigation	158	(2)
6.8 Customer acceptance of recycled water for irrigation of landscaping and golf courses	160	(1)
References	161	(3)
7. WASTEWATER TREATMENT FOR WATER RECYCLING
Valentina Lazarova
7.1 Introduction	164	(4)
7.1.1 Choice of appropriate treatment	166	(1)
7.1.2 Main treatment processes used for wastewater treatment	166	(2)
7.1.3 Influence of sewer configuration on water quality	168	(1)
7.2 Physicochemical treatment of wastewater	168	(5)
7.2.1 Screening	168	(3)
7.2.2 Primary sedimentation	171	(1)
7.2.3 Coagulation/flocculation	171	(1)
7.2.4 Flotation	172	(1)
7.3 Biological wastewater treatment processes	173	(3)
7.3.1 Activated sludge	173	(1)
7.3.2 Trickling filters	174	(2)
7.3.3 Rotating biological contactors	176	(1)
7.4 Advanced biofilm technologies	176	(2)
7.5 Nonconventional natural systems	178	(10)
7.5.1 Lagooning	178	(5)
7.5.2 Wetlands	183	(1)
7.5.3 Infiltration-percolation	184	(2)
7.5.4 Soil-aquifer treatment	186	(2)
7.6 Advanced tertiary treatment and disinfection	188	(31)
7.6.1 Tertiary filtration	189	(5)
7.6.2 Chlorination	194	(4)
7.6.3 Chlorine dioxide	198	(1)
7.6.4 UV disinfection	198	(10)
7.6.5 Ozonation	208	(7)
7.6.6 Membrane filtration	215	(1)
7.6.7 Membranes bioreactors	216	(3)
7.7 Storage and distribution of recycled water	219	(7)
7.7.1 Short-term storage	220	(1)
7.7.2 Long-term storage	220	(4)
7.7.3 Management of recycled water storage reservoirs	224	(1)
7.7.4 Control of water quality in distribution systems	225	(1)
7.8 Criteria for selection of appropriate polishing process before irrigation	226
7.8.1 Cost of additional treatment and reuse	226	(2)
7.8.2 Main criteria for selection of disinfection process	228
References	23	(213)
8. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SEWAGE IRRIGATION ON PLANTS, CROPS, SOIL, AND GROUNDWATER
Herman Bouwer
8.1 Toward a healthy environment and sustainable development	236	(1)
8.2 Compounds with potential adverse effects on recycled water for irrigation	237	(1)
8.3 Behavior of some compounds during irrigation with sewage effluent	238	(15)
8.3.1 Salt and water relations in irrigation soils	239	(5)
8.3.2 Behavior and potential adverse effects of nutrients in irrigation soils	244	(3)
8.3.3 Effects of disinfection by-products on groundwater	247	(1)
8.3.4 Effects of pharmaceuticals and other organic contaminants	248	(5)
8.4 Salt and groundwater water-table management for sustainable irrigation	253	(7)
8.4.1 Salt loadings	254	(1)
8.4.2 Salt tolerance of plants	255	(1)
8.4.3 Management of salty water	256	(3)
8.4.4 Future aspects for salinity management in south-central Arizona	259	(1)
References	260	(6)
9. ECONOMICS OF WATER RECYCLING FOR IRRIGATION
Joe Morris, Valentina Lazarova, and Sean Tyrrel
9.1 General principles	266	(1)
9.2 Financial analysis	266	(1)
9.3 Economic analysis	267	(1)
9.4 Benefits of recycled water for irrigation	267	(1)
9.5 Factors influencing irrigation benefits	268	(1)
9.6 Components of recycling systems for irrigation	269	(1)
9.7 Irrigation water supply options	269	(2)
9.8 Water-recycling options	271	(1)
9.9 Costs of water-recycling options	272	(3)
9.10 Prices for recycled water	275	(1)
9.11 Function of water prices	275	(2)
9.12 Criteria for setting prices for recycled water	277	(1)
9.13 Pricing instruments	278	(1)
9.14 Examples of recycled water prices	279	(3)
9.15 Conclusions	282	(1)
References	282	(3)
10. COMMUNITY AND INSTITUTIONAL ENGAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURAL WATER REUSE PROJECTS
Paul Jeffrey
10.1 Introduction	285	(4)
10.2 Public perceptions of water reuse for agricultural production	289	(3)
10.3 Institutional barriers	292	(6)
10.4 Models for participative planning	298	(3)
10.5 Participative planning processes for water-reuse projects	301	(4)
References	305	(5)
11. INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES OF IRRIGATION WITH RECYCLED WATER
Eric Rosenblum
11.1 Introduction	310	(1)
11.2 Ownership of water, wastewater, and recycled water	311	(8)
11.2.1 Water rights	311	(5)
11.2.2 Water use limits	316	(2)
11.2.3 Rights to recycled water	318	(1)
11.3 Wastewater regulations	319	(5)
11.3.1 Effluent regulations	320	(2)
11.3.2 Pretreatment to protect recycled water quality	322	(2)
11.4 Planning and implementation issues	324	(9)
11.4.1 Land use planning	324	(2)
11.4.2 Environmental regulations	326	(2)
11.4.3 Construction issues	328	(1)
11.4.4 Wholesaler/retailer issues	329	(3)
11.4.5 Customer agreements	332	(1)
11.5 Program management	333	(6)
11.5.1 Integrated planning	333	(1)
11.5.2 Matrix analysis of institutional issues	333	(4)
11.5.3 Summary of institutional guidelines	337	(2)
References	339	(6)
12. CASE STUDIES OF IRRIGATION WITH RECYCLED WATER
12.1 EL MEZQUITAL, MEXICO: THE LARGEST IRRIGATION DISTRICT USING WASTEWATER
Blanca Jimenez
12.1.1 General description	345	(2)
12.1.2 Wastewater quality	347	(1)
12.1.3 Effects of wastewater reuse on agriculture and health	348	(1)
12.1.4 Mexican legislation for agricultural irrigation	348	(1)
12.1.5 Helminthiasis	349	(2)
12.1.6 Removal of helminth eggs	351	(1)
12.1.7 Filtration step	352	(1)
12.1.8 Bacteria removal	353	(2)
12.1.9 Sludge treatment and disposal	355	(1)
12.1.10 Costs of recycled water	355	(1)
12.1.11 Unplanned aquifer recharge by irrigation with wastewater	356	(5)
References	361	(2)
12.2 WATER REUSE FOR GOLF COURSE IRRIGATION IN COSTA BRAVA, SPAIN
Lluis Sala and Xavier Millet
12.2.1 History	363	(1)
12.2.2 Tips for adequate recycled water management in golf course irrigation	364	(1)
12.2.3 Electrical conductivity (EC)	364	(1)
12.2.4 Nutrients	365	(3)
12.2.5 Maturation pond design and management	368	(4)
12.2.6 Conclusions	372	(1)
References	373	(1)
12.3 MONTEREY COUNTY WATER RECYCLING PROJECTS: A CASE STUDY IN IRRIGATION WATER SUPPLY FOR FOOD CROP IRRIGATION
Bahman Sheikh
12.3.1 History and motivation	374	(1)
12.3.2 Project overview	374	(3)
12.3.3 Public perception	377	(1)
12.3.4 Current project status and operation	378	(1)
12.3.5 Conclusions, lessons learned and recommendations	378	(1)
References	379	(4)
13. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY OF PRACTICES FOR IRRIGATION WITH RECYCLED WATER
Valentina Lazarova
13.1 Assessment of the feasibility of using recycled water for irrigation	383	(1)
13.2 Good agronomic practices for irrigation with recycled water	383