Wind Energy Engineering

by Jain, Pramod

• ISBN13: 9780071714778
• ISBN10: 0071714774
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2010-09-22
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education

Summary

A practical, professional guide to engineering and managing wind energy in real-world implementationsWind Energy Engineeringoffers a collective and holistic engineering approach for effectively using wind energy as a viable and economical energy source. Wind energy is a multidisciplinary engineering field that requires mechanical, aeronautical, electrical, civil, materials engineering, meteorology, and land developing knowledge. This comprehensive volume covers all of these areas.The book provides wind engineering training for engineers, technicians, and technical managers. It is ideal for those who are entering the field of wind energy as well as experienced, practicing engineers.Wind Energy Engineeringcovers everything from wind physics to optimal location and installation.Wind Energy Engineering Discusses foundation design, civil works design, and electrical engineering design Covers optical layout of turbines Includes information on wind assessments, measurements and detailed wind energy assessment methodologies Is written by a global expert in the planning of wind projects Provides practical planning and installation skills as well as technical knowledgeFeatures detailed information on: Physics of wind; Wind energy and power; Small turbines; Utility scale turbines; Electrical components of turbines; Aerodynamics of wind turbine blades; Project Siting; Wind resource assessment; Wind speed and direction measurement; Assessment and planning of wind projects; Installation and commissioning of wind projects; Wind energy economics; and more

Author Biography

Author Information
Pramod Jain, Ph.D. is a co-founder and head of engineering consulting at Wind Energy Consulting and Contracting, Inc. (WECC). He is recognized as a global expert in the planning of wind projects and has worked on projects in the United States, Caribbean, and Latin America that range from a single 100kW turbine to a 100MW wind farm. His clients include Fortune 100 companies, the U.S. government, universities, utilities, municipalities, and land developers.

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xii
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Overview of Wind Energy Business	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Worldwide Business of Wind Energy	p. 1
Cost of Wind Energy	p. 4
Benefits of Wind Energy	p. 4
Wind Energy Is Not a Panacea	p. 6
Basics of Wind Energy and Power	p. 9
Introduction	p. 9
Kinetic Energy of Wind	p. 9
Sensitivity of Power to Rotor Radius and Wind Speed	p. 11
Basic Concepts/Equations	p. 12
Conservation of Mass	p. 12
Conservation of Energy	p. 13
Conservation of Momentum	p. 14
Derivation of Betz Limit	p. 16
The Meaning of Betz Limit	p. 20
Wind versus Water	p. 22
Properties of Wind	p. 25
Introduction	p. 25
How Is Wind Generated?	p. 25
Statistical Distribution of Wind Speed	p. 26
Mean and Mode of Weibull Distribution for Wind Speed	p. 29
Power Density	p. 30
Wind Classes	p. 31
Wind Shear	p. 33
Understanding Wind Shear	p. 36
Density of Air as a Function of Elevation	p. 37
Density of Air as a Function of Humidity	p. 39
Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades	p. 41
Introduction	p. 41
Airfoils	p. 41
Relative Velocity of Wind	p. 44
Rotor Disk Theory	p. 47
Lift Force	p. 51
Equal Transit Time Fallacy	p. 51
Rotation Fluid Flow, Circulation, and Vortices	p. 51
Real Fluids	p. 55
Flow of Fluid over an Airfoil	p. 56
Effect of Reynolds Number on Lift and Drag Coefficients	p. 58
Drag-Based Turbines	p. 59
Advanced Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades	p. 63
Introduction	p. 63
Blade Element Model	p. 63
Constant-Speed Turbines, Stall-Versus Pitch-Regulated	p. 68
Variable-Speed Turbines	p. 70
Power Curves	p. 70
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)	p. 72
Wind Measurement	p. 75
Introduction	p. 75
Definition of Wind Speed	p. 75
Configurations to Measure Wind	p. 76
Anemometer	p. 77
Calibration of Anemometers	p. 81
Wind Vane	p. 81
Placement of Sensors	p. 82
Impact of Inflow Angle	p. 85
Uncertainty in Wind Speed Measurement with Anemometers	p. 85
Example of Error Estimate	p. 88
Other Sensors	p. 89
Data Logger and Communication Device	p. 89
Designing a Wind Measurement Campaign	p. 90
Installation of Met-Towers	p. 93
Example of Met-Tower Installation	p. 94
Data Management	p. 94
Data Processing	p. 96
Computed Quantities	p. 101
Turbulence	p. 101
Wind Shear	p. 103
Air Density	p. 104
Power Density	p. 105
Remote Sensing to Measure Wind Speed	p. 105
Pros and Cons of Remote Sensing for Wind Measurements	p. 106
Wind Resource Assessment	p. 111
Introduction	p. 111
Overview of Wind Resource Assessment	p. 111
Source of Wind Data	p. 113
Resource Estimation Models	p. 114
Mesoscale Models	p. 114
CFD Models	p. 115
WasP, a Microscale Model	p. 115
Definitions	p. 115
Phases of Resource Assessment	p. 122
Preliminary Wind Resource Assessment	p. 123
Wind Resource Map Lookup	p. 123
Preliminary Analysis of Data from Neighboring Airports and Other Met-Towers	p. 125
Detailed Analysis of Wind Data from Neighboring Airports and Other Met-Towers	p. 125
Onsite Wind Measurement	p. 126
Spatial Extrapolation of Wind Resources from Measured Locations to Planned Wind Turbine Locations	p. 126
Hindcasting/MCP of Measured Data	p. 127
Predict	p. 133
Annual Energy Computations	p. 145
Advanced Wind Resource Assessment	p. 147
Introduction	p. 147
Extreme Wind Speed (EWS)	p. 148
WAsP Model in Rugged Terrain	p. 151
Wake of Turbines	p. 153
N.O. Jensen Model for Wake	p. 154
Ainslie's Eddy Viscosity Model	p. 155
Combining Wind Speed Deficits from Multiple Turbines	p. 155
Turbulence Modeling	p. 156
Optimal Layout of Turbines in Wind Farm	p. 156
Wind Turbine Class Selection	p. 158
Estimation of Losses	p. 160
Uncertainty Analysis	p. 164
Estimating Uncertainty of Annual Energy Production: Framework for Combining Uncertainty	p. 165
Nonbankable versus Bankable Resource Estimates	p. 167
Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) Components	p. 169
Introduction	p. 169
Rotor System	p. 169
Blades	p. 170
Forces and Moments	p. 172
Rotor Hub	p. 173
Alternative Configurations of Turbines	p. 173
Pitch	p. 177
Nacelle	p. 178
Gearbox	p. 178
Yaw Drive	p. 178
Nacelle Housing and Frame	p. 179
Lifting/Lowering Mechanism	p. 180
Towers	p. 180
Foundation	p. 181
Spread-Footing Foundation	p. 182
Design Loads of Wind Turbines	p. 185
Design Wind Conditions	p. 186
Normal Wind Profile Model (NWP)	p. 186
Extreme Wind Speed Model (EWM)	p. 188
Turbine Certification	p. 189
Basics of Electricity and Generators	p. 197
Introduction	p. 197
Basic Principles of Electromagnetism	p. 197
Faraday's Law of Induction	p. 198
Lenz Law	p. 198
Lorenz Law or Biot-Savart Law	p. 198
Basic Principles of Alternating Current	p. 199
Basic Principles of Electrical Machines	p. 200
Conversion of Mechanical to Electrical Power	p. 202
Synchronous Generator	p. 203
Analysis of Synchronous Generator	p. 205
Variable-Speed Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators	p. 208
Direct-Drive Synchronous Generator (DDSG)	p. 211
Asynchronous Generators	p. 212
Variable Speed	p. 216
Deploying Wind Turbines in Grid	p. 221
Introduction	p. 221
What Happens on a Grid When There Is No Wind?	p. 221
"Scheduling" and Dispatch of Wind Resources	p. 223
Single-Line Diagram	p. 224
Transmission and Distribution	p. 227
Standards for Interconnection	p. 229
Power Factor and Reactive Power	p. 229
Low-Voltage Ride-Through	p. 231
Power Quality: Flicker, and Harmonics	p. 232
Short-Circuit Power	p. 232
Wind Farm Topologies	p. 233
Protection Systems	p. 236
Grounding for Overvoltage and Lightning Protection	p. 237
Lightning Protection	p. 238
Transformers for Wind Applications	p. 239
Wind-Plant Interconnection and Transmission Study	p. 240
Transmission Bottlenecks	p. 242
SCADA Systems	p. 242
Data Acquisition	p. 243
Reporting	p. 243
Control	p. 244
Environmental Impact of Wind Projects	p. 247
Introduction	p. 247
Framework for Analyzing Environmental Impact	p. 248
Context of Environmental Impact	p. 248
Temporal and Spatial Scale	p. 249
Cumulative Effects	p. 249
Quick Comparison of Wind Versus Fossil Fuel-Based Electricity Production	p. 249
Impact of Wind Farms on Wildlife	p. 250
Noise from Wind Turbines	p. 254
Mitigation of Noise	p. 256
Low-Frequency Noise	p. 257
Shadow Flicker	p. 258
Aesthetic Impact	p. 258
Hazard to Aviation	p. 260
Electromagnetic Interference	p. 261
Microwave	p. 261
TV and Radio Transmissions	p. 263
Radar	p. 263
Financial Modeling of Wind Projects	p. 269
Introduction	p. 269
Financial Model	p. 269
Revenue Model	p. 269
Renewable Energy Credits and Carbon Credits	p. 274
Revenue Computations	p. 275
Capital Costs	p. 275
Cost of Turbine	p. 278
Cost of Foundation, Erection, Access Roads, and Other Civil Works	p. 278
Substation, Control System, Cables, Installation, and Others Related to Grid Connection	p. 279
Other Costs	p. 279
Operating Costs	p. 279
Depreciation and Taxes	p. 281
Financial Statements	p. 282
Income Statement and Cash Flow for a Wind Project	p. 282
Balance Sheet for A Wind Project	p. 282
Financial Performance	p. 283
Net Present Value (NPV)	p. 286
Payback Period	p. 286
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)	p. 287
Impact of Tax Credits and Accelerated Depreciation on Financial Performance	p. 287
Financing and Structure of Wind Projects	p. 294
Financial Evaluation of Alternatives	p. 297
Planning and Execution of Wind Projects	p. 301
Introduction	p. 301
High-Level Project Plan and Timeline	p. 301
Development	p. 302
Prospecting	p. 303
Wind Measurement and Detailed Wind Assessment	p. 303
Project Siting, Interconnection, and PPA	p. 305
Project Engineering and Procurement	p. 307
Project Financing	p. 312
Construction, Installation, and Commissioning	p. 313
Construction of Infrastructure	p. 314
Site Preparation	p. 314
Foundation Construction and Turbine Erection	p. 315
Collection System and Substation Construction	p. 318
Commissioning	p. 318
Operations	p. 320
Index	p. 323
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