Wine Microbiology

by Fugelsang, Kenneth C.; Edwards, Charles G.

• ISBN13: 9780387333410
• ISBN10: 038733341X
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2007-01-30
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

Since publication of the first edition of Wine Microbiology in 1997, the volume of new information and concepts has dramatically increased. Even with the tremendous increase in available information, a comprehensive understanding regarding the role of individual microorganisms towards wine quality as well as the impact of complicated interactions between microorganisms and processing techniques is lacking.Wine Microbiology, Second Edition, fills this void. Like the first edition, the book addresses real world problems such as characterization and enumeration of yeast, bacteria and molds common to juice and wine environments and their impact on wine quality and stability. In addition, the potential of solving processing problems through rapid, real-time molecular methods and new applications for using starter cultures of non-Saccharomyces yeast are discussed. The book is a great resource for professionals and students in the field of enology and viticulture.

Author Biography

Kenneth C. Fugelsang has been associated with California State University (Fresno) since 1970 and is now winemaster and professor of enology. He is an author of 12 books and over 100 technical papers and presentations. Professor Fugelsang has been recipient of the Claude Laval Award for Innovative Technology, the University Award for Research and Scholarly Activity, as well as the Outstanding Alumnus Award from the College of Science and Mathematics. In addition to teaching and research responsibilities, he is responsible for operation of the university's commercial 50,000 gallon winery where student-produced wines have received over 150 super, gold, and silver awards at national and international wine competitions.Charles G. Edwards received his Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in food science from Oregon State University (1982), Cornell University (1985), and The Pennsylvania State University (1989), respectively. He is currently a professor with the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at Washington State University (Pullman, Washington, USA). Dr. Edwards is an author of 150+ technical papers and presentations and is sole author of Illustrated Guide to Microbes and Sediments in Wine, Beer, and Juice. His laboratory was award the best research paper published in the American Journal of Enology and Viticulture in 1991 and best student presentations at the American Society for Enology and Viticulture annual meeting in 2004. Dr. Edwards currently teaches courses in food chemistry and wine microbiology/processing.

Table of Contents

Preface to the Second Edition	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Introduction	p. xix
Grape and Wine Microorganisms
Yeasts	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Reproduction	p. 3
Sexual Reproduction	p. 4
Asexual Reproduction	p. 4
Taxonomy	p. 7
Candida	p. 8
Dekkera	p. 9
Hanseniaspora	p. 11
Issatchenkia	p. 11
Metschnikowia	p. 11
Pichia	p. 12
Saccharomyces	p. 12
Saccharomycodes	p. 13
Schizosaccharomyces	p. 14
Zygosaccharomyces	p. 14
Nutritional Requirements	p. 15
Nitrogen	p. 16
Growth and Survival Factors	p. 17
Metabolism	p. 18
Glucose	p. 18
Sulfur	p. 23
Odor/Flavor Compounds	p. 23
Glycosidases	p. 26
Mannoproteins	p. 28
Lactic Acid Bacteria	p. 29
Introduction	p. 29
Taxonomy	p. 29
Lactobacillus	p. 30
Oenococcus	p. 32
Pediococcus	p. 33
Nutritional Requirements	p. 34
Metabolism	p. 36
Glucose	p. 36
Arginine	p. 38
Malate	p. 39
Mannitol and Erythritol	p. 40
Diacetyl and Other Odor/Flavor Compounds	p. 41
Acetic Acid Bacteria	p. 45
Introduction	p. 45
Taxonomy	p. 45
Nutritional Requirements	p. 47
Metabolism	p. 47
Carbohydrates	p. 47
Ethanol	p. 49
Molds and Other Microorganisms	p. 52
Introduction	p. 52
Ecology Habitats	p. 53
Taxonomy	p. 54
Aspergillus (Black Mold)	p. 54
Botrytis (Gray Mold)	p. 54
Penicillium (Blue-Green Mold)	p. 56
4.4 Nutritional Requirements	p. 56
4.5 Metabolism	p. 56
Glucose	p. 56
Mycotoxins	p. 57
Odor/Flavor Compounds	p. 58
Other Microorganisms	p. 59
Bacillus	p. 59
Clostridium	p. 59
Streptomyces	p. 60
Vinification and Winery Processing
Managing Microbial Growth	p. 65
Introduction	p. 65
Preservatives and Sterilants	p. 65
Sulfur Dioxide	p. 66
Dimethyl Dicarbonate	p. 70
Lysozyme	p. 72
Sorbic Acid	p. 73
Other Preservatives and Sterilants	p. 75
Filtration	p. 77
Perpendicular-Flow Filtration ("Nominal" or "Depth")	p. 77
Perpendicular-Flow Filtration ("Absolute" or "Sterile")	p. 78
Cross-Flow/Tangential Filtration	p. 80
Microbial Ecology During Vinification	p. 82
Introduction	p. 82
Non-Saccharomyces and Saccharomyces Yeasts	p. 84
Grapes and Musts	p. 84
Alcoholic Fermentation	p. 85
Post-fermentation	p. 87
Dekkera/Brettanomyces	p. 87
Grapes and Musts	p. 87
Alcoholic and Post-fermentation	p. 87
Lactic Acid Bacteria	p. 88
Grapes and Musts	p. 88
Alcoholic and Malolactic Fermentations	p. 89
Post-fermentation	p. 91
Acetic Acid Bacteria	p. 91
Grapes and Musts	p. 91
Alcoholic and Post-fermentation	p. 91
Microbial Interactions	p. 93
Saccharomyces and Oenococcus	p. 93
Saccharomyces and Lactobacillus	p. 96
Oenococcus, Pediococcus, and Lactobacillus	p. 98
Other Interactions	p. 100
Harvest and Pre-fermentation Processing	p. 102
Introduction	p. 102
Harvest and Transport	p. 102
Fruit Quality Assessment	p. 103
Soluble Solids	p. 103
pH and Titratable Acidity	p. 104
Microbial Spoilage	p. 105
Must Processing	p. 106
Enzymes	p. 106
Suspended Solids	p. 107
Pre-fermentation Maceration (Cold-Soak)	p. 108
Thermovinification	p. 109
Inert Gassing	p. 109
Processing Microbially Deteriorated Fruit	p. 110
Enzymatic Browning	p. 110
Fermentation Difficulties	p. 111
Clarification Concerns	p. 112
Management Strategies	p. 112
Juice Storage (Mute)	p. 113
Fermentation and Post-fermentation Processing	p. 115
Introduction	p. 115
Must Supplementation	p. 115
Alcoholic Fermentation	p. 118
Historical Perspective of Starter Cultures	p. 118
Preparation of Starter Cultures	p. 119
Strain Selection	p. 121
Temperature	p. 122
Immobilized Yeast	p. 122
"Natural" Fermentations	p. 123
Fermentation Problems	p. 124
Sluggish/Stuck Fermentations	p. 124
Hydrogen Sulfide	p. 128
Malolactic Fermentation	p. 130
Preparation of Starter Cultures	p. 130
Strain Selection	p. 132
Timing of Inoculation	p. 132
Use of Schizosaccharomyces	p. 135
Post-Fermentation Processing	p. 135
Aging and Storage	p. 135
Adjustment of Volatile Acidity	p. 136
Bottling	p. 137
Winery Cleaning and Sanitizing	p. 139
Introduction	p. 139
Safety Issues	p. 140
Water Quality	p. 140
Preliminary Cleaning	p. 141
Detergents, Cleaners, and Surfactants	p. 142
Alkali	p. 142
Acids	p. 143
Surfactants	p. 143
Rinses	p. 143
Sanitizers	p. 144
Iodine	p. 145
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds	p. 145
Acidulated Sulfur Dioxide	p. 146
Peroxides	p. 147
Chlorine and Chlorinated Formulations	p. 148
Hot Water and Steam	p. 148
Ozone	p. 149
Sanitation Monitoring	p. 150
Schedules and Documentation	p. 151
Quality Points Program	p. 153
Introduction	p. 153
Developing QP Programs	p. 154
Processing and Flowchart	p. 155
Quality Factor Analysis	p. 156
Examples of Quality Factors	p. 156
Preventive Measures	p. 157
Critical Quality Points	p. 157
Critical Limits	p. 158
Monitoring Procedures	p. 159
Corrective Actions	p. 160
Record-Keeping and Documentation	p. 160
Verification	p. 161
Wine Spoilage	p. 162
Introduction	p. 162
Spoilage Microorganisms	p. 162
Acetohacter	p. 162
Dekkera/Brettanomyces	p. 164
Film Yeasts	p. 166
Saccharomycodes	p. 167
Zygosaccharoviyces	p. 168
Wine Faults	p. 168
Volatile Acidity	p. 168
Ethyl Carbamate	p. 170
Mousiness	p. 172
Post-MLF Bacterial Growth	p. 172
Geranium Odor/Tone	p. 173
Biogenic Amines	p. 174
Acrolein	p. 176
Mannitol	p. 178
Ropiness	p. 178
Tartaric Add Utilization	p. 179
Laboratory Procedures and Protocols
Basic Microscopy	p. 183
Introduction	p. 183
Microscopes	p. 183
Magnification	p. 184
Resolution	p. 184
Contrast	p. 185
Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 185
Using Microscopes	p. 187
Components	p. 187
General Use	p. 189
Calibration	p. 189
Preparing Smears	p. 190
From Liquid Media	p. 190
From Solid Media	p. 191
Preparing Wet Mounts	p. 191
Preparing Mold Slide Cultures	p. 192
Media Preparation and Culture Techniques	p. 194
Introduction	p. 194
Physical/Chemical Requirements for Cultivation	p. 195
Carbon and Nitrogen	p. 195
Oxygen	p. 196
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)	p. 196
Moisture and Water Activity	p. 197
Incubation Temperature and Conditions	p. 198
Selective Agents	p. 198
Sterilization of Laboratory Media and Supplies	p. 199
Boiling Water	p. 199
Steam Sterilization	p. 200
Dry Heat	p. 201
Sterile Filtration	p. 202
Chemical Sterilization	p. 202
Storage of Prepared Media	p. 204
Media for Yeasts and Molds	p. 205
Wort Medium	p. 206
Grape Juice Medium	p. 207
WL Medium	p. 207
Brettanomyces Medium A	p. 207
Brettanomyces Medium B	p. 208
Brettanomyces Medium C	p. 208
Brettanomyces Medium D	p. 209
Lysine Medium	p. 209
Zygosaccharomyces Medium	p. 210
Media for Lactic Acid Bacteria	p. 211
Apple Juice Rogosa Medium	p. 211
Tomato Juice-Glucose-Fructose-Malate Medium	p. 212
Heterofermentation-Arginine Broth	p. 212
Media for Acetic Acid Bacteria	p. 213
Glucose-Yeast Extract-Carbonate Medium	p. 213
Mannitol-Yeast Extract-Peptone Medium	p. 214
Yeast Extract-Peptone-Ethanol Medium	p. 214
Aseptic Transfer Techniques	p. 214
Transfers from Solid to Solid Media	p. 215
Transfers from Solid to Liquid Media	p. 216
Transfers from Liquid to Solid Media	p. 217
Isolation of Microorganisms	p. 219
Maintenance and Storage of Cultures	p. 221
Preparation of Agar Slants and Stabs	p. 221
Glycerol Suspensions	p. 221
Freeze-drying (Yeasts)	p. 221
Freeze-drying (Lactic Acid Bacteria)	p. 222
Estimation of Population Density	p. 224
Introduction	p. 224
Sampling	p. 225
Sample Dilution	p. 226
Direct Microscopic Count	p. 228
Using a Microscope Counting Chamber	p. 229
Methylene Blue	p. 231
Ponceau-S	p. 232
Wolford's Stain	p. 232
Direct Plating	p. 233
Pour Plates	p. 234
Spread Plates	p. 235
Membrane Filtration	p. 236
Bioluminescence	p. 238
Nephelometry and Optical Density	p. 239
Identification of Wine Microorganisms	p. 241
Introduction	p. 241
Identifying Microorganisms	p. 242
Yeasts and Molds	p. 244
Assimilation of Carbon and Nitrogen	p. 244
Demonstration of Ascospores	p. 250
Demonstration of Mycelia/Pseudomycelia	p. 252
Fermentation of Carbohydrates	p. 253
Bacteria	p. 254
Ammonia from Arginine	p. 255
Catalase	p. 256
Dextran from Sucrose	p. 257
Fermentation of Carbohydrates	p. 257
Gas from Glucose	p. 260
Gram Stain	p. 262
Ketogenesis	p. 264
Lactate from Glucose	p. 264
Malate Utilization (Monitoring MLF)	p. 266
Mannitol from Fructose	p. 269
Oxidation of Ethanol	p. 269
Oxidation of Lactate	p. 271
Other Technologies for Identification and Enumeration	p. 273
Introduction	p. 273
Phenotypical Identification	p. 274
Biolog System	p. 274
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Analysis	p. 274
Protein Characterization	p. 275
Electrophoretic Characterization of Isozymes (Zymograms)	p. 275
Immunochemical Techniques	p. 276
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay	p. 276
Immunochemical Fluorescence Microscopy	p. 278
Phylogenetic Analyses	p. 278
Polymerase Chain Reaction	p. 279
Gel Electrophoresis	p. 281
Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction	p. 282
Hybridization Probes	p. 283
Fluoresence In Situ Hybridization	p. 283
Ribonucleic Acid Analysis	p. 283
Probe Detection Systems	p. 284
TaqMan Probes	p. 284
Molecular Beacons	p. 284
Scorpions	p. 286
Peptide Nucleic Acid Chemiluminescent In Situ Hybridization Probes	p. 287
Other Molecular Methods	p. 287
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms	p. 287
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis	p. 288
Additional Methods	p. 288
Extrachromosomal Elements (Satellites)	p. 289
Chemical and Physical Instabilities	p. 290
Introduction	p. 290
Crystalline Instabilities	p. 290
Tartrates	p. 290
"Crystal-Like" Instabilities	p. 293
Cork Dust	p. 293
Diatomaceous Earth	p. 294
Fibrous Instabilities	p. 295
Amorphous Instabilities	p. 296
Protein	p. 296
Phenolics	p. 298
Glucans, Pectins, and Starch	p. 299
Metal Casse	p. 300
Laboratory Setup	p. 303
Introduction	p. 303
Microscope and pH Meter	p. 304
Autoclave	p. 305
Centrifuge and Filters	p. 305
Incubators	p. 306
Water Baths	p. 306
Glass and Plasticware	p. 307
Media	p. 308
Photometers	p. 308
Laminar Flow Hoods	p. 308
Miscellaneous	p. 309
Laboratory Safety	p. 311
Introduction	p. 311
Injury and Illness Prevention Program	p. 311
Training	p. 312
Information	p. 312
Communication	p. 314
Eyewash Stations and Safety Showers	p. 314
Fire Alarms and Prevention	p. 316
First Aid	p. 316
Personal Protective Equipment	p. 316
Examples of Safety Issues	p. 318
Biohazard and Chemical Waste	p. 319
Electricity	p. 319
Heat and Steam	p. 319
Machinery Safeguards	p. 320
Storage	p. 320
Ultraviolet Light	p. 320
Glossary	p. 322
References	p. 331
Index	p. 381
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