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List of Illustrations | p. xiii |
List of Tables | p. xv |
Acknowledgments | p. xvii |
Prologue | p. xxi |
Introduction | |
Overcoming Methodological Challenges | p. 3 |
Social Science Debates over the Superiority of Particular Methods | p. 7 |
Multiple Methods: Promises and Challenges | p. 11 |
Practical Challenges and Methodological Trade-Offs | p. 14 |
Technological Development and the Costs of Border Crossing | p. 15 |
Availability and Accessibility of Data | p. 17 |
Career Incentives as Methodological Constraints | p. 18 |
Training | p. 19 |
Career Incentives and Specialization | p. 20 |
Our Substantive Focus | p. 21 |
Interactions between Theory and Methods | p. 23 |
Multiple Methods and Collaborative Research | p. 23 |
Practical Constraints on Methodological Choices | p. 23 |
Career Incentives and Methodological Practice | p. 24 |
Outline of the Book | p. 24 |
Field Methods | |
Small-N Case Studies: Putting the Commons under a Magnifying Glass | p. 31 |
The Conventional Theory of the Commons | p. 31 |
The Case Study Method | p. 33 |
Cases, Case Studies, and Case Study Research | p. 33 |
Analytical Strengths and Weaknesses | p. 34 |
Practical Considerations | p. 37 |
Synthesizing Challenges and Coordinating New Research Efforts | p. 39 |
Contributions to the Study of the Commons | p. 45 |
Property Rights and Tenure Security | p. 45 |
Group Characteristics | p. 52 |
Resource Characteristics | p. 57 |
Case Studies as a Foundation | p. 60 |
Broadly Comparative Field-Based Research | p. 64 |
Methodological Practices over Fifteen Years of Research | p. 65 |
Defining the Units of Analysis | p. 66 |
Trading Geographic Scope for Numbers? | p. 68 |
Theoretical Aspirations and Methodological Practices | p. 74 |
Practical Challenges to Broadly Comparative Field-Based Research | p. 74 |
Costs of Data Collection | p. 75 |
Research Design and Sampling | p. 76 |
The Implications of Data Scarcity and Costliness | p. 78 |
Meta-Analysis: An Introduction | p. 78 |
Weighing the Benefits and Costs of Meta-Analysis | p. 81 |
Coding Strategies and Missing Data | p. 81 |
Potential Sources of Sample Bias | p. 83 |
The Choice of Methodological Strategy: Weighing Costs against Control | p. 86 |
Meta-Analysis: Getting the Big Picture through Synthesis | p. 89 |
Meta-Analysis: A Recapitulation | p. 89 |
The Common-Pool Resource (CPR) Research Program | p. 90 |
Defining Variables | p. 92 |
Compensating for Gaps in Case Materials | p. 93 |
Contributions | p. 94 |
Overall Assessment | p. 101 |
NIIS: A Hybrid Approach | p. 102 |
Adaptation of the CPR Protocols | p. 103 |
Measurement and Sampling | p. 104 |
Contributions | p. 105 |
Overall Assessment | p. 107 |
Other Synthetic Studies | p. 107 |
Additional Examples of Meta-Analysis | p. 108 |
An Example of Narrative Synthesis | p. 111 |
Progress and Continuing Challenges | p. 113 |
Collaborative Field Studies | p. 115 |
Collaboration in Field-Based Research, 1990–2004 | p. 116 |
Two Research Partnerships | p. 118 |
Community-Based Management of Common-Pool Resources in Tanzania | p. 118 |
Traditional Management of Artisanal Fisheries in Nigeria | p. 120 |
Thoughts about Research Partnerships | p. 124 |
CGIAR: A Global Research Alliance | p. 124 |
IFRI: An International Research Network | p. 126 |
Strategies for Data Collection | p. 127 |
Strategies for Coordination | p. 128 |
Contributions and Challenges | p. 129 |
Comparing the Strategies and Drawing Implications | p. 132 |
Models and Experiments in the Laboratory -and the Field | |
Experiments in the Laboratory and the Field | p. 141 |
The Experimental Method | p. 142 |
Laboratory Experiments of Relevance to the Study of the Commons | p. 144 |
Public Goods Experiments | p. 146 |
Common-Pool Resource Experiments | p. 150 |
Insights from Public Goods and Common-Pool Resource Experiments in the Laboratory | p. 153 |
Face-to-Face Communication in the Laboratory | p. 153 |
Heterogeneity | p. 156 |
Sanctioning Experiments | p. 158 |
Field Experiments | p. 159 |
Toward a New Generation of Experiments of Commons Dilemmas | p. 163 |
New Developments in Laboratory Experiments | p. 164 |
Toward a New Generation of Field Experiments | p. 168 |
Conclusion | p. 169 |
Agent-Based Models of Collective Action | p. 171 |
A Brief Introduction to Agent-Based Modeling | p. 171 |
Cellular Automata | p. 172 |
Networks | p. 173 |
Agents | p. 174 |
Strengths and Weaknesses of Agent-Based Models | p. 175 |
Repeated Prisoner's Dilemma | p. 177 |
Cooperation among Egoists | p. 177 |
Evolving Strategies in Prisoner's Dilemma Tournaments | p. 178 |
Spatial Games 1814 | p. 180 |
Spatial Public Goods Games | p. 181 |
Indirect Reciprocity | p. 182 |
Evolution of Costly Punishment | p. 185 |
Evolution of Social (Meta) Norms | p. 187 |
Future Challenges | p. 188 |
Conclusion | p. 191 |
Building Empirically Grounded Agent-Based Models | p. 194 |
Comparing Simulations with Data | p. 195 |
Different Approaches to Combine Empirical Data and Agent-Based Models | p. 196 |
Agent-Based Models of Laboratory and Field Experiments | p. 198 |
Role Games and Companion Modeling | p. 204 |
Models of Case Studies | p. 207 |
Methodological Challenges | p. 210 |
Conclusion | p. 212 |
Synthesis | |
Pushing the Frontiers of the Theory of Collective Action and the Commons | p. 215 |
Synopsis of Research Developments Reviewed in Parts II and III | p. 217 |
Toward a More General-Behavioral Theory of Human Action | p. 220 |
Assumptions of a Behavioral Theory | p. 222 |
The Centrality of Trust | p. 226 |
Unpacking the Concept of Context | p. 227 |
The Microsituational Context | p. 228 |
The Impact of Microsituational Variables on Cooperation | p. 228 |
The Challenge of Linking Contextual Scales | p. 231 |
The Broader Scale Affecting Collective Action | p. 232 |
Ontological Frameworks | p. 232 |
An Ontological Framework of Social-Ecological Systems | p. 234 |
Predicting Self-Organization Drawing on the SES Framework | p. 236 |
Diagnosing Institutional Change | p. 239 |
Challenges for Future Research | p. 243 |
Conclusion | p. 245 |
A Theoretical Puzzle: Why Do Some Resource Users Self-Organize and Others Do Not? | p. 246 |
Learning from Multiple Methods | p. 248 |
Interlocking Developments in Methods and Theory | p. 249 |
Methodological and Disciplinary Cross-Fertilization and Theoretical Innovation | p. 251 |
Sequential Movement between Methods and Disciplines | p. 252 |
Combining Multiple Methods and Disciplines in a Program of Research | p. 255 |
Spaces for Cross-Fertilization | p. 257 |
Practical Challenges | p. 258 |
Trade-Offs in Training and Research | p. 258 |
Professional Incentives | p. 260 |
Collaborative Research as a Collective-Action Problem | p. 262 |
Rewards to Individual and Collaborative Research | p. 263 |
Fragmentation of Academia | p. 265 |
Misunderstandings and Mistrust | p. 266 |
Long-Term Funding | p. 269 |
Responding to the Challenges | p. 270 |
Looking Forward | p. 271 |
Notes | p. 275 |
References | p. 289 |
Index | p. 339 |
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