Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings, Brief Edition

by Ramage, John D.; Bean, John C.; Johnson, June

• ISBN13: 9780321163417
• ISBN10: 0321163419
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2007-01-01
• Publisher: Longman

Summary

The market-leading guide to arguments, "Writing Arguments" has proven highly successful in teaching readers to read arguments critically and to produce effective arguments of their own. Teaches readers to write better arguments. How to write arguments; how to do research for arguments; an anthology of argumentative readings. Anyone interested in writing better arguments.

Table of Contents

Color Plates	xxii
Preface	xxiii
Acknowledgments	xxxi
Part One Overview of Argument	1	(72)
Argument: An Introduction	3	(19)
What Do We Mean by Argument?	3	(2)
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel	3	(1)
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate	4	(1)
Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit	4	(1)
``Dulce et Decorum Est''	5	(2)
Wilfred Owen
The Defining Features of Argument	7	(5)
Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims	7	(2)
Argument Is Both a Process and a Product	9	(1)
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion	10	(2)
Argument and the Problem of Truth	12	(3)
A Successful Process of Argumentation: The Well-Functioning Committee	15	(2)
``Petition to Waive the University Mathematics Requirement''	17	(4)
Gordon Adams
Conclusion	21	(1)
Reading Arguments	22	(27)
Why Reading Arguments Is Important for Writers	22	(1)
Strategy 1: Reading as a Believer	23	(1)
``Playing with Our Food''	24	(3)
Lisa Turner
Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe	27	(4)
Suspending Doubt: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer's Views	30	(1)
Strategy 2: Reading as a Doubter	31	(2)
Strategy 3: Exploring How Rhetorical Context and Genre Shape the Argument	33	(4)
Understanding the Genres of Argument	33	(3)
Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre	36	(1)
Strategy 4: Seeking Out Alternative Views and Analyzing Sources of Disagreement	37	(3)
Disagreement about Facts or Their Relevance	38	(1)
Disagreement about Values, Beliefs, or Assumptions	38	(2)
``Why Biotech Labeling Can Confuse Consumers''	40	(3)
Writing an Analysis of a Disagreement	43	(1)
``An Analysis of the Sources of Disagreement between Lisa Turner and the Council for Biotechnology Information''	43	(2)
Strategy 5: Using Disagreement Productively to Prompt Further Investigation	45	(3)
Accepting Ambiguity and Uncertainty	45	(1)
Seeking Sources of Facts and More Complete Versions of Alternative Views	46	(1)
Determining What Values Are at Stake for You and Articulating Your Own Values	47	(1)
Considering Ways to Synthesize Alternative Views	47	(1)
Conclusion	48	(1)
Writing Arguments	49	(24)
Who Writes Arguments and Why?	49	(3)
Tips for Improving Your Writing Process	52	(4)
Starting Point	52	(1)
Exploring, Researching, and Rehearsing	53	(1)
Writing a First Draft	53	(1)
Revising through Multiple Drafts	54	(1)
Editing for Style, Impact, and Correctness	55	(1)
Using Exploratory Writing to Discover Ideas and Deepen Thinking	56	(6)
Freewriting or Blind Writing	56	(1)
Idea Mapping	57	(1)
Playing the Believing and Doubting Game	58	(2)
Brainstorming for Pro and Con Because Clauses	60	(1)
Brainstorming a Network of Related Issues	61	(1)
Shaping Your Argument: Classical Argument as a Planning Tool	62	(5)
The Structure of Classical Argument	62	(3)
An Illustration of Classical Argument as a Planning Guide	65	(2)
Discovering Ideas: Two Sets of Exploratory Writing Tasks	67	(3)
Set 1: Starting Points	67	(2)
Set 2: Exploration and Rehearsal	69	(1)
Writing Assignments for Chapters 1--3	70	(3)
Part Two Principles of Argument	73	(124)
The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons	75	(12)
The Rhetorical Triangle	75	(1)
Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument	76	(3)
Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question	77	(2)
Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument	79	(2)
Pseudo-Arguments: Fanatical Believers and Fanatical Skeptics	79	(1)
Another Source of Pseudo-Arguments: Lack of Shared Assumptions	79	(2)
Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons	81	(3)
What Is a Reason?	81	(1)
Advantages of Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses	82	(2)
Application of this Chapter's Principles to Your Own Writing	84	(2)
Application of this Chapter's Principles to the Reading of Arguments	86	(1)
Conclusion	86	(1)
The Logical Structure of Arguments	87	(22)
An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the ``Logical Structure'' of an Argument?	87	(4)
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System	91	(7)
Using Toulmin's Schema to Determine a Strategy of Support	98	(3)
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons	101	(7)
Difference between Writer-Based and Audience-Based Reasons	102	(2)
Finding Audience-Based Reasons: Asking Questions about Your Audience	104	(4)
Conclusion	108	(1)
Using Evidence Effectively	109	(20)
General Principles for the Persuasive Use of Data	109	(2)
Apply the STAR Criteria to Data	110	(1)
Use Sources That Your Reader Trusts	111	(1)
Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence	111	(11)
Kinds of Evidence	112	(4)
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence	116	(3)
Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence	119	(2)
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence	121	(1)
Gathering Evidence	122	(3)
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence	122	(1)
Gathering Data from Interviews	123	(1)
Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires	124	(1)
Conclusion	125	(1)
Writing Assignments for Chapters 4--6	125	(1)
``'Half-Criminals' or Urban Athletes? A Plea for Fair Treatment of Skateboarders''	126	(3)
David Langley
Moving Your Audience: Ethos and Pathos	129	(11)
Ethos and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview	129	(2)
How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility	131	(1)
Be Knowledgeable about Your Issue	131	(1)
Be Fair	131	(1)
Build a Bridge to Your Audience	132	(1)
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Belief and Emotions	132	(5)
Use Concrete Language	133	(1)
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations	133	(1)
Use Narratives	134	(2)
Choose Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations	136	(1)
Using Images for Emotional Appeal	137	(2)
Conclusion	139	(1)
Accommodating Your Audience: Treating Differing Views	140	(25)
One-Sided versus Multisided Arguments	140	(1)
Determining Your Audience's Resistance to Your Views	141	(2)
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument	143	(1)
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument	144	(6)
Summarizing Opposing Views	144	(1)
Refuting Opposing Views	145	(3)
Strategies for Rebutting Evidence	148	(1)
Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy	149	(1)
From First Place: A Healing School for Homeless Children	150	(2)
Marybeth Hamilton
Conceding to Opposing Views	152	(1)
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Delayed Thesis or Rogerian Argument	152	(1)
Delayed-Thesis Argument	153	(1)
``Minneapolis Pornography Ordinance''	153	(5)
Ellen Goodman
Rogerian Argument	156	(2)
``Letter to Jim''	158	(5)
Rebekah Taylor
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Using Humor	160	(3)
Conclusion	163	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapters 7 and 8	164	(1)
Conducting Visual Arguments	165	(32)
Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument	166	(4)
Use of Type	166	(2)
Use of Space or Layout	168	(1)
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements	169	(1)
``A Single Hit of Ecstasy...'' (advocacy advertisement)---Drug Enforcement Administration	170	(4)
Use of Color	172	(1)
Use of Images and Graphics	172	(1)
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components	173	(1)
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings	174	(5)
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images	176	(3)
The Genres of Visual Argument	179	(7)
Posters and Fliers	180	(1)
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements	180	(3)
Cartoons	183	(3)
Web Pages	186	(1)
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument	186	(2)
``Drink and Then Drive? Jeopardize My Future?'' (poster)	188	(1)
Leah Johnson
Using Graphics as Visual Arguments	189	(5)
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories	189	(2)
Using a Graph to Tell a Story	191	(1)
Bar Graphs	191	(1)
Pie Charts	192	(1)
Line Graphs	193	(1)
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument	194	(2)
Designing the Graphic	194	(1)
Numbering, Labeling, and Titling the Graphic	194	(1)
Referencing the Graphic in Your Text	195	(1)
Conclusion	196	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapters 9	196	(1)
Part Three Arguments in Depth: Six Types of Claims	197	(158)
An Introduction to the Types of Claims	199	(9)
An Overview of the Types of Claims	199	(5)
Type 1: Simple Categorical Arguments (Is X a Y?, Where You and Your Audience Agree on the Meaning of Y)	200	(1)
Type 2: Definitional Arguments (Is X a Y?, Where the Definition of Y Is Contested)	201	(1)
Type 3: Cause/Consequence Arguments (Does X Cause Y? Is Y a Consequence of X?)	201	(1)
Type 4: Resemblance Arguments (Is X Like Y?)	202	(1)
Type 5: Evaluation Arguments (Is X Good or Bad? Is X a Good or Bad Y?)	202	(1)
Type 6: Proposal Arguments (Should We Do X?)	203	(1)
What Is the Value of Studying Claim Types?	204	(4)
Help in Focusing an Argument and Generating Ideas	204	(3)
Help in Organizing and Developing an Argument	207	(1)
Categorical and Definitional Arguments: X Is (Is Not) a Y	208	(33)
An Overview of the Categorical Arguments	209	(1)
Simple Categorical Arguments	210	(4)
Difference between Facts and Simple Categorical Claims	210	(1)
Variations in the Wording of Simple Categorical Claims	211	(1)
Supporting Simple Categorical Claims: Supply Examples	212	(1)
Refuting Simple Categorical Claims	213	(1)
An Overview of Definitional Arguments	214	(1)
The Criteria-Match Structure of Definitional Arguments	214	(3)
Conceptual Problems of Definition	217	(2)
Why Can't We Just Look in the Dictionary?	217	(1)
Definitions and the Rule of Justice: At What Point Does X Quit Being a Y?	217	(2)
Kinds of Definitions	219	(3)
Aristotelian Definition	219	(2)
Effect of Rhetorical Context on Aristotelian Definitions	221	(1)
Operational Definitions	222	(1)
Strategies for Defining the Contested Term in a Definitional Argument	222	(4)
Reportive Approach: Research How Others Have Used the Term	223	(1)
Stipulative Approach: Create Your Own Definition	224	(2)
Conducting the Match Part of a Definitional Argument	226	(1)
Writing a Definitional Argument	227	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 11	227	(3)
Exploring Ideas	227	(1)
Organizing a Definitional Argument	228	(1)
Revising Your Draft	229	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Definitional Argument	230	(1)
Questioning the Criteria	230	(1)
Questioning the Match	231	(1)
Readings	231	(1)
``Why Not Taiwan?''	231	(2)
Jack K. C. Chiang
Critiquing ``Why Not Taiwan?''	232	(1)
``Oncore, Obscenity, and the Liquor Control Board''	233	(2)
Kathy Sullivan
Critiquing ``Oncore, Obscenity, and the Liquor Control Board''	235	(1)
``This Isn't a `Legal' Matter, This Is War''	235	(3)
Charles Krauthammer
Critiquing ``This Isn't a `Legal' Matter, This Is War''	237	(1)
``Court Win for Martin Not a Defeat for Pro Sports''	238	(3)
Blaine Newnham
Critiquing ``Court Win for Martin Not a Defeat for Pro Sports''	239	(2)
Causal Arguments: X Causes (Does Not Cause)Y	241	(28)
An Overview of Causal Arguments	242	(1)
The Nature of Causal Arguing	242	(2)
Describing a Causal Argument in Toulmin Terms	244	(2)
Three Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another	246	(6)
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly	246	(2)
Second Method: Use Various Inductive Methods to Establish a High Probability of a Causal Link	248	(3)
Third Method: Argue by Analogy or Precedent	251	(1)
Glossary of Terms Encountered in Causal Arguments	252	(2)
Writing Your Causal Argument	254	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 12	254	(3)
Exploring Ideas	255	(1)
Organizing a Causal Argument	256	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument	257	(2)
Readings	259	(1)
``The Monster That Is High School''	259	(3)
Daeha Ko
Critiquing ``The Monster That Is High School''	261	(1)
``Kids Who Do Not Participate...'' (advocacy advertisement)	262	(1)
Critiquing the United Way advocacy ad	262	(1)
``When Mothers on Welfare Go to Work''	263	(2)
Richard Rothstein
Critiquing ``When Mothers on Welfare Go to Work''	264	(1)
``The Causes of Teen Sexual Behavior''	265	(4)
Holly Miller
Critiquing ``The Causes of Teen Sexual Behavior''	268	(1)
Resemblance Arguments: X Is (Is Not) like Y	269	(20)
An Overview of Resemblance Arguments	270	(2)
Arguments by Analogy	272	(3)
Using Undeveloped Analogies	273	(1)
Using Extended Analogies	273	(2)
Arguments by Precedent	275	(3)
Writing a Resemblance Argument	278	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 13	278	(1)
Exploring Ideas	278	(1)
Organizing a Resemblance Argument	278	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Resemblance Argument	279	(1)
Readings	280	(1)
``Whales Need Silence''	280	(1)
Megan Matthews
Critiquing ``Whales Need Silence''	281	(1)
``Iraq War Plans''	281	(1)
Jean Arbeiter
Critiquing ``Iraq War Plans''	282	(1)
``The Long Haul''	282	(3)
Paul Klugman
Critiquing ``The Long Haul''	284	(1)
``Knock! Knock!'' (political cartoon)	285	(1)
Sven Van Assche
Critiquing the Internet Chat Room Cartoon	285	(1)
from Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape	285	(4)
Susan Brownmiller
Critiquing the Passage from Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape	288	(1)
Evaluation and Ethical Arguments: X Is (Is Not) a Good Y; X Is Right (Wrong)	289	(30)
An Overview of Evaluation Arguments	289	(1)
Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations	290	(1)
Conducting a Categorical Evaluation Argument	291	(5)
Determining Criteria for a Categorical Evaluation Argument	292	(2)
Determining Whether X Meets the Criteria	294	(2)
An Overview of Ethical Arguments	296	(1)
Two Major Ethical Systems	297	(1)
Consequences as the Base of Ethics	297	(1)
Principles as the Base of Ethics	298	(1)
Conducting an Ethical Argument	298	(2)
Constructing a Principles-Based Argument	298	(1)
Constructing a Consequences-Based Argument	299	(1)
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments	300	(2)
Writing an Evaluation Argument	302	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 14	302	(3)
Exploring Ideas	302	(1)
Organizing an Evaluation Argument	303	(1)
Revising Your Draft	304	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing an Evaluation Argument	305	(2)
Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument	305	(1)
Critiquing an Ethical Argument	306	(1)
Readings	307	(1)
``Would Legalization of Gay Marriage Be Good for the Gay Community?''	307	(3)
Sam Isaacson
Critiquing ``Would Legalization of Gay Marriage Be Good for the Gay Community?''	310	(1)
``A Woman's View of Hip-Hop''	310	(4)
Tiffany Anderson
Critiquing ``A Woman's View of Hip-Hop''	313	(1)
``Public Schools U.S.A. 2001'' (political cartoon)	314	(1)
Ann Cleaves
Critiquing the Education/Testing Cartoon	314	(1)
``Eight Is Too Many: The Case against Octuplets''	315	(4)
Dr. Ezekiel J. Emanuel
Critiquing ``Eight Is Too Many: The Case against Octuplets''	318	(1)
Proposal Arguments: We Should (Should Not) Do X	319	(36)
An Overview of Proposal Arguments	320	(1)
The Structure of Proposal Arguments	320	(1)
Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments	321	(2)
The Need for Presence	321	(1)
The Need to Overcome People's Natural Conservatism	322	(1)
The Difficulty of Predicting Future Consequences	322	(1)
The Problem of Evaluating Consequences	322	(1)
Developing a Proposal Argument	323	(2)
Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists	323	(1)
Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal	324	(1)
The Justification: Convincing Your Readers That Your Proposal Should Be Enacted	324	(1)
Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements	325	(2)
Using the Claim-Type Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument	327	(3)
Using the ``Stock Issues'' Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument	330	(2)
Writing a Proposal Argument	332	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 15	332	(5)
Exploring Ideas	334	(1)
Organizing a Proposal Argument	335	(1)
Revising Your Draft	335	(2)
Designing a One-Page Advocacy Advertisement	337	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument	337	(2)
Readings	339	(1)
``A Proposal to Provide Tips for Hosts at Stone's End''	340	(4)
Laurel Wilson
Critiquing ``A Proposal to Provide Tips for Hosts at Stone's End''	343	(1)
``A Proposal for Universal Health Insurance in the United States'' (MLA-style research paper)	344	(7)
Mark Bonicillo
Critiquing ``A Proposal for Universal Health Insurance in the United States''	351	(1)
``The Supreme Court's Unfree Speech''	351	(3)
Akhil Reed Amar
Steven G. Calabresi
Critiquing ``The Supreme Court's Unfree Speech''	352	(2)
``She's the Test Subject for Thousands of Toxic Chemicals. Why?'' (advocacy advertisement)	354	(1)
Critiquing the Advocacy Ad from the Center for Children's Health and the Environment	354	(1)
Part Four The Researched Argument	355	(69)
Finding and Evaluating Sources	357	(27)
Formulating a Research Question	358	(2)
Understanding Differences in the Kinds of Sources	360	(5)
Books Versus Periodicals Versus Web Sites	360	(3)
Scholarly Books Versus Trade Books	363	(1)
Scholarly Journals Versus Magazines	364	(1)
Print Sources Versus Cyberspace Sources	364	(1)
Finding Books: Searching Your Library's Online Catalog	365	(1)
Finding Print Articles: Searching a Licensed Database	365	(4)
What Is a Licensed Database?	365	(2)
Keyword Searching	367	(1)
Illustration of a Database Search	368	(1)
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web	369	(4)
The Logic of the Internet	370	(1)
Using Web Search Engines	371	(1)
Determining Where You Are on the Web	372	(1)
Reading Your Sources Rhetorically	373	(1)
Reading with Your Own Goals in Mind	373	(1)
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness	373	(1)
Taking Effective Notes	374	(2)
Evaluating Sources	376	(2)
Angle of Vision	376	(1)
Degree of Advocacy	377	(1)
Reliability	378	(1)
Credibility	378	(1)
Understanding the Rhetoric of Web Sites	378	(4)
The Web as a Unique Rhetorical Environment	378	(1)
Analyzing the Purpose of a Site and Your Own Research Purpose	378	(1)
Sorting Sites by Domain Type	379	(1)
Evaluating a Web Site	380	(2)
``Spread of Active Sonar Threatens Whales'' (web page)	382	(1)
Conclusion	383	(1)
Using, Citing, and Documenting Sources	384	(40)
Using Sources for Your Own Purposes	384	(3)
Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags	387	(1)
Using Attributive Tags to Separate Your Ideas from Your Source's	387	(1)
Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response	387	(1)
Working Sources into Your Own Prose	388	(4)
Summarizing	388	(1)
Paraphrasing	389	(1)
Quoting	389	(3)
Avoiding Plagiarism	392	(1)
Understanding Parenthetical Citation Systems with Bibliographies	393	(1)
Understanding MLA Style	394	(12)
The MLA Method of In-Text Citation	394	(1)
MLA Format for the ``Works Cited'' List	395	(1)
MLA Quick Reference Guide for the Most Common Citations	395	(2)
MLA Citations	397	(8)
Formatting an Academic Paper in MLA Style	405	(1)
Student Example of an MLA-Style Research Paper	405	(1)
Understanding APA Style	406	(9)
APA Method of In-Text Citation	406	(1)
APA Format for the ``References'' List	407	(1)
APA Quick Reference Guide for the Most Common Citations	407	(2)
APA Citations	409	(6)
Conclusion	415	(1)
Student Example of an APA-Style Research Paper	415	(1)
``Sounding the Alarm: Navy Sonar and the Survival of Whales''	416	(8)
Megan Matthews
Appendixes	424	(1)
One Informal Fallacies	424	(14)
The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument	424	(1)
An Overview of Informal Fallacies	425	(13)
Fallacies of Pathos	426	(1)
Fallacies of Ethos	427	(3)
Fallacies of Logos	430	(8)
Two The Writing Community: Working in Groups	438	(19)
From Conflict to Consensus: How to Get the Most Out of the Writing Community	438	(2)
Avoiding Bad Habits of Group Behavior	439	(1)
The Value of Group Work for Writers	439	(1)
Forming Writing Communities: Skills and Roles	440	(5)
Working on Groups of Five to Seven People	441	(2)
Working in Pairs	443	(2)
A Several-Day's Group Project: Defining ``Good Argumentative Writing''	445	(1)
``Good Writing and Computers for Today's Modern American Youth of America''	446	(2)
``Bloody Ice''	448	(1)
``RSS Should Not Provide Dorm Room Carpets''	449	(2)
``Sterling Hall Dorm Food''	451	(1)
``ROTC Courses Should Not Get College Credit''	451	(2)
``Legalization of Prostitution''	453	(1)
A Classroom Debate	454	(3)
Credits	457	(2)
Index	459