Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings, Concise Edition

by Ramage, John D.; Bean, John C.; Johnson, June

• ISBN13: 9780321163387
• ISBN10: 0321163389
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-01-01
• Publisher: Longman

Summary

The market leader in argumentative rhetorics,Writing Arguments has proven highly successful in teaching individuals to read arguments critically and to produce effective arguments of their own.In its reader-friendly tone, clear explanations, high-interest readings and examples, and well-sequenced critical thinking and writing assignments, this concise text offers a time-tested approach to argument that is interesting and accessible. Throughout the book, the authors approach argument rhetorically by emphasizing audience and context at every stage of the construction of an argument.Writing Arguments moves readers beyond a simplistic debate model of argument to a view of argument as inquiry and consensus-building as well as persuasion, in which the arguer negotiates with others in search of the best solutions to problems. Individuals interested in developing their argumentative writing skills.

Table of Contents

Color Plates	xvi
Preface	xvii
Part One Overview of Argument	1	(62)
1 Argument: An Introduction	3	(16)
What Do We Mean by Argument?	3	(3)
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel	3	(1)
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate	4	(1)
Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit	4	(2)
Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims	6	(2)
Argument Is Both a Process and a Product	8	(1)
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion	8	(2)
Argument and the Problem of Truth	10	(3)
A Successful Process of Argumentation: The Well-Functioning Committee	13	(1)
Gordon Adams (student), "Petition to Waive the University Mathematics Requirement"	14	(5)
Conclusion	17	(2)
2 Reading Arguments	19	(24)
Why Reading Arguments Is Important for Writers	19	(1)
Strategy 1: Reading as a Believer	19	(2)
Lisa Turner, "Playing with Our Food"	21	(14)
Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe	24	(3)
Suspending Doubt: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer's Views	27	(1)
Strategy 2: Reading as a Doubter	27	(1)
Strategy 3: Exploring How Rhetorical Context and Genre Shape the Argument	28	(5)
Understanding the Genres of Argument	29	(3)
Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre	32	(1)
Strategy 4: Seeking Alternative Views and Analyzing Sources of Disagreement	33	(5)
Disagreement About Facts or Their Relevance	33	(1)
Disagreements About Values, Beliefs, or Assumptions	34	(1)
Council for Biotechnology Information, "Why Biotech Labeling Can Confuse Consumers"	35	(3)
Writing an Analysis of a Disagreement	38	(1)
"An Analysis of the Sources of Disagreement Between Lisa Turner and the Council for Biotechnology Information"	38	(5)
Strategy 5: Using Disagreement Productively to Prompt Further Investigation	40	(2)
Accepting Ambiguity and Uncertainty	40	(1)
Seeking Sources of Facts and More Complete Versions of Alternative Views	40	(1)
Determining What Values Are at Stake for You and Articulating Your Own Values	41	(1)
Considering Ways to Synthesize Alternative Views	42	(1)
Conclusion	42	(1)
3 Writing Arguments	43	(20)
Who Writes Arguments and Why?	43	(1)
Tips for Improving Your Writing Process	44	(4)
Starting Point	45	(1)
Exploring, Researching, and Rehearsing	45	(1)
Writing a First Draft	46	(1)
Revising Through Multiple Drafts	47	(1)
Editing for Style, Impact, and Correctness	48	(1)
Using Exploratory Writing to Discover Ideas and Deepen Thinking	48	(7)
Freewriting or Blind Writing	48	(2)
Idea Mapping	50	(1)
Playing the Believing and Doubting Game	51	(1)
Brainstorming for Pro and Con Because Clauses	52	(2)
Brainstorming a Network of Related Issues	54	(1)
Shaping Your Argument: Using Classical Structure as an Initial Guide	55	(2)
Using Exploratory Writing to Discover Ideas and Deepen Thinking: Two Sets of Exploratory Tasks	57	(4)
Set 1: Starting Points	57	(2)
Set 2: Exploration and Rehearsal	59	(2)
Writing Assignments for Chapters 1-3	61	(2)
Part Two Principles of Argument	63	(100)
4 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons	65	(11)
The Rhetorical Triangle	65	(1)
Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument	66	(2)
Difference Between an Issue Question and an Information Question	67	(1)
Difference Between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument	68	(2)
Pseudo-Arguments: Fanatical Believers and Fanatical Skeptics	68	(1)
Another Source of Pseudo-Arguments: Lack of Shared Assumptions	69	(1)
Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons	70	(3)
What Is a Reason?	70	(2)
Advantages of Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses	72	(1)
Applying This Chapter's Principles to Your Own Writing	73	(2)
Applying This Chapter's Principles to Reading Arguments	75	(1)
Conclusion	75	(1)
5 The Logical Structure of Arguments	76	(16)
An Overview of Logos; What Do We Mean by the"Logical Structure" of an Argument?	76	(3)
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System	79	(5)
Using Toulmin's Schema to Determine a Strategy of Support	84	(2)
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons	86	(5)
Difference Between Writer-Based and Audience-Based Reasons	86	(3)
Finding Audience-Based Reasons: Asking Questions About Your Audience	89	(2)
Conclusion	91	(1)
6 Using Evidence Effectively	92	(18)
General Principles for the Persuasive Use of Data	92	(2)
Apply the STAR Criteria to Data	92	(2)
Use Sources That Your Reader Trusts	94	(1)
Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence	94	(10)
Kinds of Evidence	94	(5)
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence	99	(2)
Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence	101	(2)
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence	103	(1)
Gathering Evidence	104	(2)
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence	104	(1)
Gathering Data from Interviews	105	(1)
Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires	105	(1)
Conclusion	106	(1)
Writing Assignments for Chapters 4-6	106	(1)
David Langley (student), "Half Criminals or Urban Athletes? A Plea for Fair Treatment of Skateboarders"	107	(3)
7 Moving Your Audience: Ethos and Pathos	110	(9)
Ethos and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview	110	(2)
How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility	112	(1)
Be Knowledgeable About Your Issue	112	(1)
Be Fair	112	(1)
Build a Bridge to Your Audience	112	(1)
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions	112	(6)
Use Concrete Language	113	(1)
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations	113	(1)
Use Narratives	114	(1)
Choose Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations	115	(1)
Use Visual Arguments for Emotional Appeal	115	(3)
Conclusion	118	(1)
8 Accommodating Your Audience: Treating Differing Views	119	(18)
One-Sided versus Multisided Arguments	119	(1)
Determining Your Audience's Resistance to Your Views	120	(1)
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument	121	(1)
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument	122	(6)
Summarizing Opposing Views	122	(1)
Refuting Opposing Views	123	(3)
Strategies for Rebutting Evidence	126	(1)
Conceding to Opposing Views	127	(1)
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Delayed-Thesis or Rogerian Argument	128	(5)
Delayed-Thesis Argument	128	(1)
Ellen Goodman, "Minneapolis Pornography Ordinance"	128	(1)
Rogerian Argument	131	(2)
Rebekah Taylor (student), "Letter to Jim"	133	(3)
Conclusion	135	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapters 7 and 8	136	(1)
9 Conducting Visual Arguments	137	(26)
Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument	138	(2)
The Components of Visual Design	138	(1)
Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements	138	(2)
Drug Enforcement Administration, "A Single Hit of Ecstasy ..." (advocacy advertisement)	140	(13)
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings	141	(5)
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images	143	(3)
The Genres of Visual Arguments	146	(6)
Posters and Fliers	147	(1)
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements	148	(2)
Cartoons	150	(1)
Web Pages	151	(1)
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument	152	(1)
Leah Johnson (student), "Drink and Then Drive? Jeopardize My Future?" (poster)	153	(8)
Using Graphics as Visual Arguments	154	(6)
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories	154	(3)
Using a Graphic to Tell a Story	157	(2)
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument	159	(1)
Conclusion	160	(1)
Writing Assignments for Chapter 9	161	(2)
Part Three Claim Types in Argument	163	(109)
10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims	165	(9)
An Overview of the Types of Claims	165	(5)
Type 1: Simple Categorical Arguments (Is X a Y?, Where You and Your Audience Agree on the Meaning of Y)	166	(1)
Type 2: Definitional Arguments (Is X a Y?, Where the Definition of Y Is Contested)	167	(1)
Type 3: Cause/Consequence Arguments (Does X Cause Y? Is Y a Consequence of X?)	167	(1)
Type 4: Resemblance Arguments (Is X Like Y?)	168	(1)
Type 5: Evaluation Arguments (Is X Good or Bad? Is X a Good or Bad Y?)	168	(1)
Type 6: Proposal Arguments (Should We Do X?)	169	(1)
What Is the Value of Studying Claim Types?	170	(4)
Help in Focusing an Argument and Generating Ideas	170	(3)
Help in Organizing and Developing an Argument	173	(1)
11 Categorical and Definitional Arguments: X Is (Is Not) a Y	174	(20)
An Overview of Categorical Arguments	174	(1)
Simple Categorical Arguments	175	(3)
Difference Between Facts and Simple Categorical Claims	175	(1)
Variations in the Wording of Simple Categorical Claims	176	(1)
Supporting Simple Categorical Claims: Supply Examples	177	(1)
Refuting Simple Categorical Claims	177	(1)
An Overview of Definitional Arguments	178	(1)
The Criteria-Match Structure of Definitional Arguments	179	(2)
Conceptual Problems of Definition	181	(1)
Why Can't We Just Look in the Dictionary?	181	(1)
Definitions and the Rule of Justice: At What Point Does X Stop Being a Y?	181	(1)
Kinds of Definitions	182	(2)
Aristotelian Definition	183	(1)
Operational Definition	183	(1)
Strategies for Defining the Contested Term in a Definitional Argument	184	(4)
Reportive Approach: Research How Others Have Used the Term	184	(1)
Stipulative Approach: Create Your Own Definition	185	(3)
Conducting the Match Part of a Definitional Argument	188	(1)
Organizing a Definitional Argument	188	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Definitional Argument	189	(1)
Questioning the Criteria	189	(1)
Questioning the Match	189	(1)
Readings	190	(1)
Jack K.C. Chiang, "Why Not Taiwan?"	190	(1)
Kathy Sullivan (student), "Oncore, Obscenity, and the Liquor Control Board"	191	(2)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 11	193	(1)
12 Causal Arguments: X Causes (Does Not Cause) Y	194	(19)
An Overview of Causal Arguments	194	(1)
The Nature of Causal Arguing	195	(2)
Describing a Causal Argument in Toulmin Terms	197	(1)
Three Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another	198	(6)
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly	199	(1)
Second Method: Use Various Inductive Methods to Establish a High Probability of a Causal Link	200	(3)
Third Method: Argue by Analogy or Precedent	203	(1)
Glossary of Terms Encountered in Causal Arguments	204	(3)
Organizing a Causal Argument	207	(2)
Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument 208 Readings	209	(1)
Daeha Ko (student), "The Monster That Is High School"	210	(2)
United Way, "Kids Who Do Not Participate ..." (advocacy advertisement)	212	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 12	212	(1)
13 Resemblance Arguments: X Is (Is Not) Like Y	213	(13)
An Overview of Resemblance Arguments	213	(3)
Arguments by Analogy	216	(3)
Using Undeveloped Analogies	217	(1)
Using Extended Analogies	217	(2)
Arguments by Precedent	219	(3)
Organizing a Resemblance Argument	222	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Resemblance Argument	222	(1)
Readings	223	(1)
Megan Matthews (student), "Whales Need Silence"	223	(1)
Jean Arbeiter, "Iraq War Plans "	224	(1)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 13	225	(1)
14 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments: X Is (Is Not) a Good Y; X Is Right (Wrong)	226	(23)
An Overview of Evaluation Arguments	226	(1)
Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations	227	(1)
Conducting a Categorical Evaluation Argument	228	(4)
Determining Criteria for a Categorical Evaluation Argument	228	(2)
Determining Whether X Meets the Criteria	230	(2)
An Overview of Ethical Arguments	232	(1)
Major Ethical Systems	233	(2)
Consequences as the Base of Ethics	234	(1)
Principles as the Base of Ethics	234	(1)
Constructing an Ethical Argument	235	(2)
Constructing a Principles-Based Argument	235	(1)
Constructing a Consequences-Based Argument	236	(1)
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments	237	(2)
Organizing an Evaluation Argument	239	(1)
Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation	240	(1)
Critiquing an Ethical Evaluation	241	(1)
Readings	242	(1)
Tiffany Anderson (student), "A Woman's View of Hip-Hop"	242	(3)
Dr. Ezekiel J. Emanuel, "Eight Is Too Many; The Case Against Octuplets"	245	(3)
Writing Assignment for Chapter 14	248	(1)
15 Proposal Arguments: We Should (Should Not) Do X	249	(23)
The Nature of Proposal Arguments	249	(1)
The Structure of Proposal Arguments	250	(1)
Special Concerns of Proposal Arguments	250	(2)
The Need for Presence	250	(1)
The Need to Overcome People's Natural Conservatism	250	(1)
The Difficulty of Predicting Future Consequences	251	(1)
The Problem of Evaluating Consequences	251	(1)
Developing a Proposal Argument	252	(2)
Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists	252	(1)
Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal	253	(1)
The Justification: Convincing Your Reader That Your Proposal Should Be Enacted	253	(1)
Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements	254	(2)
Using the Claim-Type Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument	256	(3)
Using the Stock-Issues Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument	259	(2)
Organizing a Proposal Argument	261	(1)
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument	262	(1)
Reading	263	(1)
Mark Bonicillo (student), "A Proposal for Universal Health Insurance in the United States" (MLA-style research paper)	264	(6)
Writing Assignments for Chapter 15	270	(2)
Appendixes	272	(35)
Appendix One Informal Fallacies	272	(6)
Fallacies of Pathos	272	(1)
Fallacies of Ethos	273	(1)
Fallacies of Logos	274	(4)
Appendix Two A Concise Guide to Finding, Evaluating, and Documenting Sources	278	(29)
Finding Print Articles: Searching a Licensed Database	278	(3)
What Is a Licensed Database?	278	(1)
Illustration of a Database Search	279	(2)
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web	281	(1)
Evaluating Sources	282	(2)
Angle of Vision	282	(1)
Degree of Advocacy	283	(1)
Reliability	283	(1)
Credibility	284	(1)
Evaluating Web Sites	284	(4)
Analyzing the Purpose of a Site and Your Own Research Purpose	284	(1)
Sorting Sites by Domain Type	284	(1)
Making an Evaluation of a Web Site	285	(3)
Using Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism	288	(3)
Using Sources for Your Own Purposes	288	(2)
Avoiding Plagiarism	290	(1)
Citing Sources in MLA Style	291	(2)
Documenting Sources in a "Works Cited"List (MLA)	293	(1)
MLA Quick Reference Guide for the Most Common Citations	293	(2)
Formatting an Academic Paper in MLA Style	295	(1)
Student Example of an MLA-Style Research Paper	295	(1)
Citing Sources in APA Style	295	(1)
Documenting Sources in a "References" List (APA)	296	(1)
APA Quick Reference Guide for the Most Common Citations	296	(2)
Student Example of an APA-Style Research Paper	298	(1)
Megan Matthews (student), "Sounding the Alarm: Navy Sonar and the Survival of Whales"	299	(8)
Credits	307	(1)
Index	308