Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics

by Ghilani, Charles D.; Wolf, Paul R.

• ISBN13: 9780131481893
• ISBN10: 0131481894
• Edition: 11th
• Format: Hardcover w/CD
• Copyright: 2008-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

For freshman and sophomore courses in surveying.This is a highly readable best-selling text that presents basic concepts and practical material in each of the areas fundamental to modern surveying (geomatics) practice. Its depth and breadth are ideal for self-study. The Eleventh Edition includes more than 400 figures and illustrations to help clarify discussions, and numerous worked example problems to illustrate computational procedures.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxv
Introduction	1	(21)
Definition of Surveying	1	(2)
Geomatics	3	(1)
History of Surveying	4	(3)
Geodetic and Plane Surveys	7	(3)
Importance of Surveying	10	(1)
Specialized Types of Surveys	11	(1)
Surveying Safety	12	(1)
Land and Geographic Information Systems	13	(1)
Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies	14	(1)
The Surveying Profession	15	(1)
Professional Surveying Organizations	16	(1)
Surveying on the Internet	17	(1)
Future Challenges in Surveying	18	(4)
Problems	19	(1)
Bibliography	20	(2)
Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes	22	(1)
PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES	22	(7)
Introduction	22	(1)
Units of Measurement	22	(2)
International System of Units (SI)	24	(2)
Significant Figures	26	(2)
Rounding Off Numbers	28	(1)
PART II FIELD NOTES	29	(43)
Field Notes	29	(1)
General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes	30	(1)
Types of Field Books	31	(1)
Kinds of Notes	32	(1)
Arrangements of Notes	32	(2)
Suggestions for Recording Notes	34	(1)
Introduction to Automatic Data Collectors	35	(4)
Transfer of Files from Data Collectors	39	(1)
Digital Data File Management	39	(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automatic Data Collectors	41	(4)
Problems	42	(1)
Bibliography	43	(2)
Theory of Errors in Observations	45	(27)
Introduction	45	(1)
Direct and Indirect Observations	45	(1)
Errors in Measurements	46	(1)
Mistakes	46	(1)
Sources of Errors in Making Observations	47	(1)
Types of Errors	47	(1)
Precision and Accuracy	48	(1)
Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors	49	(1)
Probability	49	(1)
Most Probable Value	50	(1)
Residuals	51	(1)
Occurrence of Random Errors	51	(4)
General Laws of Probability	55	(1)
Measures of Precision	55	(3)
Interpretation of Standard Deviation	58	(1)
The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors	58	(2)
Error Propagation	60	(5)
Error of a Sum	61	(1)
Error of a Series	61	(2)
Error in a Product	63	(1)
Error of the Mean	64	(1)
Applications	65	(1)
Conditional Adjustment of Observations	65	(1)
Weights of Observations	66	(1)
Least Squares Adjustment	67	(5)
Problems	68	(2)
Bibliography	70	(2)
Leveling--Theory, Methods, and Equipment	72	(1)
PART I LEVELING--THEORY AND METHODS	72	(12)
Introduction	72	(1)
Definitions	72	(2)
North American Vertical Datum	74	(1)
Curvature and Refraction	75	(2)
Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation	77	(7)
Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic Methods	77	(1)
Differential Leveling	77	(2)
Barometric Leveling	79	(1)
Trigonometric Leveling	80	(4)
PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING	84	(43)
Categories of Levels	84	(1)
Telescopes	85	(1)
Level Vials	86	(2)
Tilting Levels	88	(1)
Automatic Levels	89	(1)
Digital Levels	90	(2)
Tripods	92	(1)
Hand Level	92	(1)
Level Rods	93	(2)
Testing and Adjusting Levels	95	(7)
Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments	95	(1)
Adjusting for Parallax	96	(1)
Testing and Adjusting Level Vials	96	(1)
Preliminary Adjustment of the Horizontal Cross Hair	96	(1)
Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight	97	(2)
Problems	99	(1)
Bibliography	100	(2)
Leveling---Field Procedures and Computations	102	(25)
Introduction	102	(1)
Carrying and Setting up a Level	102	(2)
Duties of a Rodperson	104	(1)
Differential Leveling	105	(4)
Precision	109	(2)
Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits	111	(1)
Reciprocal Leveling	112	(1)
Three-Wire Leveling	113	(1)
Profile Leveling	113	(6)
Staking and Stationing the Reference Line	113	(2)
Field Procedures for Profile Leveling	115	(2)
Drawing and Using the Profile	117	(2)
Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling	119	(1)
Use of the Hand Level	119	(1)
Sources of Error in Leveling	119	(3)
Instrumental Errors	119	(1)
Natural Errors	120	(1)
Personal Errors	121	(1)
Mistakes	122	(1)
Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes	122	(5)
Problems	123	(2)
Bibliography	125	(2)
Distance Measurement	127	(1)
PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES	127	(2)
Introduction	127	(1)
Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements	127	(1)
Pacing	128	(1)
Odometer Readings	128	(1)
Optical Rangefinders	129	(1)
Tacheometry	129	(1)
Subtense Bar	129	(1)
PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING	129	(16)
Introduction to Taping	129	(1)
Taping Equipment and Accessories	130	(1)
Care of Taping Equipment	131	(1)
Taping on Level Ground	132	(2)
Lining In	132	(1)
Applying Tension	132	(1)
Plumbing	132	(1)
Marking Tape Lengths	132	(1)
Reading the Tape	133	(1)
Recording the Distance	134	(1)
Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground	134	(2)
Slope Measurements	136	(1)
Sources of Error in Taping	137	(4)
Incorrect Length of Tape	137	(1)
Temperature Other Than Standard	138	(1)
Inconsistent Pull	139	(1)
Sag	139	(1)
Tape Not Horizontal and Tape Off Line	140	(1)
Improper Plumbing	140	(1)
Faulty Marking	141	(1)
Incorrect Reading or Interpolation	141	(1)
Summary of Effects of Taping Errors	141	(1)
Tape Problems	141	(2)
Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem	143	(2)
PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT	145	(42)
Introduction	145	(1)
Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy	145	(3)
Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement	148	(2)
Electro-Optical Instruments	150	(3)
Total Station Instruments	153	(1)
EDM Instruments Without Reflectors	153	(1)
Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances	154	(2)
Reduction of Short Lines by Elevation Differences	155	(1)
Reduction of Short Lines by Zenith or Vertical Angle	156	(1)
Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement	156	(10)
Personal Errors	157	(1)
Instrumental Errors	158	(2)
Natural Errors	160	(1)
Problems	161	(3)
Bibliography	164	(2)
Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings	166	(21)
Introduction	166	(1)
Units of Angle Measurement	166	(1)
Kinds of Horizontal Angles	167	(1)
Direction of a Line	168	(1)
Azimuths	169	(1)
Bearings	170	(1)
Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings	171	(1)
Computing Azimuths	172	(2)
Computing Bearings	174	(1)
The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field	175	(2)
Magnetic Declination	177	(2)
Variations in Magnetic Declination	179	(1)
Software for Determining Magnetic Declination	179	(2)
Local Attraction	181	(1)
Typical Magnetic Declination Problems	181	(1)
Mistakes	182	(5)
Problems	183	(3)
Bibliography	186	(1)
Total Station Instruments; Angle Measurements	187	(1)
PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS	187	(11)
Introduction	187	(1)
Characteristics of Total Station Instruments	187	(3)
Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments	190	(1)
Parts of a Total Station Instrument	190	(4)
Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument	194	(3)
Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments	197	(1)
PART II ANGLE MEASUREMENTS	198	(669)
Relationship of Angles and Distances	198	(1)
Measuring Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments	199	(2)
Measuring Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method	201	(1)
Closing the Horizon	202	(2)
Measuring Deflection Angles	204	(2)
Measuring Azimuths	206	(1)
Measuring Vertical (or Zenith) Angles	206	(2)
Sights and Marks	208	(1)
Prolonging a Straight Line	209	(2)
Balancing-In	211	(1)
Random Traverse	212	(1)
Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences	213	(1)
Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories	214	(3)
Adjustment of Plate-Level Vials	216	(1)
Adjustment of Tripods	216	(1)
Adjustment of Tribrachs	216	(1)
Adjustment of Optical Plummets	217	(1)
Adjustment of Circular Level Bubbles	217	(1)
Sources of Error in Total Station Work	217	(6)
Instrumental Errors	218	(3)
Natural Errors	221	(1)
Personal Errors	222	(1)
Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Measurement	223	(1)
Mistakes	224	(3)
Problems	224	(2)
Bibliography	226	(1)
Traversing	227	(13)
Introduction	227	(2)
Methods of Measuring Traverse Angles or Directions	229	(1)
Traversing by Interior Angles	229	(1)
Traversing by Angles to the Right	229	(1)
Traversing by Deflection Angles	229	(1)
Traversing by Azimuths	230	(1)
Measurement of Traverse Lengths	230	(1)
Selection of Traverse Stations	231	(1)
Referencing Traverse Stations	231	(2)
Traverse Field Notes	233	(1)
Angle Misclosure	234	(1)
Traversing with Total Station Instruments	235	(1)
Radial Traversing	236	(1)
Sources of Error in Traversing	237	(1)
Mistakes in Traversing	238	(2)
Problems	238	(1)
Bibliography	239	(1)
Traverse Computations	240	(30)
Introduction	240	(1)
Balancing Angles	241	(2)
Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings	243	(1)
Departures and Latitudes	244	(1)
Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions	245	(1)
Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision	246	(1)
Traverse Adjustment	247	(3)
Compass (Bowditch) Rule	248	(2)
Least-Squares Method	250	(1)
Rectangular Coordinates	250	(1)
Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations	251	(4)
Balancing Angles by Adjusting Azimuths or Bearings	251	(2)
Balancing Departures and Latitudes by Adjusting Coordinates	253	(2)
Lengths and Directions of Lines from Departures and Latitudes, or Coordinates	255	(1)
Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions	256	(2)
Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys	258	(1)
Use of Open Traverses	259	(3)
State Plane Coordinate Systems	262	(1)
Traverse Computations Using Computers	263	(1)
Locating Blunders in Traverse Measurements	263	(2)
Mistakes in Traverse Computations	265	(5)
Problems	265	(4)
Bibliography	269	(1)
Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations	270	(31)
Introduction	270	(1)
Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles	271	(2)
Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line	273	(2)
Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions	275	(2)
Intersection of a Line with a Circle	277	(3)
Intersection of Two Circles	280	(2)
Three-Point Resection	282	(3)
Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation	285	(4)
Inaccessible Point Problem	289	(3)
Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection	292	(3)
Conclusions	295	(6)
Problems	295	(4)
Bibliography	299	(2)
Area	301	(22)
Introduction	301	(1)
Methods of Measuring Area	301	(1)
Area by Division into Simple Figures	302	(1)
Area by Offsets from Straight Lines	303	(2)
Regularly Spaced Offsets	303	(1)
Irregularly Spaced Offsets	304	(1)
Area by Coordinates	305	(4)
Area by Double Meridian Distance Method	309	(3)
Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries	312	(1)
Partitioning of Lands	313	(4)
Trial and Error Method	313	(2)
Use of Simple Geometric Figures	315	(1)
Coordinate Method	316	(1)
Area by Measurements from Maps	317	(3)
Area by Counting Coordinate Squares	317	(1)
Area by Scaled Lengths	318	(1)
Area by Digitizing Coordinates	318	(1)
Area by Planimeter	318	(2)
Sources of Error in Determining Areas	320	(1)
Mistakes in Determining Areas	320	(3)
Problems	320	(2)
Bibliography	322	(1)
The Global Positioning System--Introduction and Principles of Operation	323	(35)
Introduction	323	(1)
Overview of GPS	324	(2)
The GPS Signal	326	(2)
Reference Coordinate Systems for GPS	328	(9)
The Satellite Reference Coordinate System	329	(1)
The Geocentric Coordinate System	329	(2)
The Geodetic Coordinate System	331	(6)
Fundamentals of GPS Positioning	337	(2)
Code Ranging	337	(2)
Carrier Phase-Shift Measurements	339	(1)
Errors in GPS Observations	339	(8)
Clock Bias	339	(1)
Refraction	340	(2)
Other Error Sources	342	(2)
Geometry of Observed Satellites	344	(2)
Selective Availability	346	(1)
Differential GPS	347	(2)
Real-Time Kinematic GPS Methods	349	(1)
Relative Positioning	350	(2)
Single Differencing	350	(1)
Double Differencing	351	(1)
Triple Differencing	352	(1)
The GLONASS Constellation	352	(1)
The Future	353	(5)
Problems	354	(2)
Bibliography	356	(2)
The Global Positioning System--Field and Office Procedures	358	(37)
Introduction	358	(2)
Field Procedures in GPS Surveys	360	(6)
Static Relative Positioning	360	(2)
Rapid Static Relative Positioning	362	(1)
Pseudokinematic Surveys	362	(1)
Kinematic Relative Positioning	362	(2)
Real-Time Kinematic GPS Surveys	364	(2)
Planning GPS Surveys	366	(13)
Preliminary Considerations	367	(3)
Selecting the Appropriate Survey Method	370	(2)
Field Reconnaissance	372	(1)
Developing an Observation Scheme	373	(4)
Availability of Reference Stations	377	(2)
Performing Static GPS Surveys	379	(1)
Data Processing and Analysis	379	(9)
Specifications for GPS Surveys	382	(1)
Analysis of Fixed Baseline Measurements	383	(2)
Analysis of Repeat Baseline Measurements	385	(1)
Analysis of Loop Closures	385	(1)
Baseline Network Adjustment	386	(1)
The Survey Report	387	(1)
Sources of Errors in GPS Work	388	(1)
Instrumental Errors	388	(1)
Natural Errors	389	(1)
Personal Errors	389	(1)
Mistakes in GPS Work	389	(1)
Future Outlook for GPS	390	(5)
Problems	391	(1)
Bibliography	392	(3)
Adjustments by Least Squares	395	(47)
Introduction	395	(2)
Fundamental Condition of Least Squares	397	(1)
Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method	398	(4)
Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment	402	(2)
Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities	404	(2)
Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits	406	(4)
Propagation of Errors	410	(1)
Least-Squares Adjustment of GPS Baseline Vectors	411	(6)
Least-Squares Adjustment of Traditional Horizontal Plane Surveys	417	(8)
Linearizing Nonlinear Equations	417	(2)
The Distance Observation Equation	419	(2)
The Azimuth Observation Equation	421	(1)
The Angle Observation Equation	422	(3)
A Traverse Example Using Wolfpack	425	(1)
Error Ellipses	425	(6)
Adjustment Procedures	431	(2)
Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations	433	(1)
Conclusions	434	(8)
Problems	435	(6)
Bibliography	441	(1)
Mapping Surveys	442	(38)
Introduction	442	(1)
Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys	443	(1)
Map Scale	443	(2)
Control for Mapping Surveys	445	(1)
Contours	446	(3)
Characteristics of Contours	449	(1)
Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours	449	(2)
Direct Method	450	(1)
Indirect Method	450	(1)
Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems	451	(3)
Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details	454	(12)
Radiation by Total Station	454	(2)
Radiation by Stadia	456	(5)
Coordinate Squares or ``Grid'' Method	461	(1)
Offsets from a Reference Line	461	(2)
Topographic Detailing with Portable GPS Units	463	(1)
Laser-Scanning	464	(2)
Three Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation	466	(2)
Selection of Field Method	468	(1)
Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software	468	(3)
Hydrographic Surveys	471	(4)
Equipment for Making Soundings	471	(2)
Locating Soundings	473	(2)
Hydrographic Mapping	475	(1)
Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys	475	(1)
Mistakes in Mapping Surveys	476	(4)
Problems	476	(2)
Bibliography	478	(2)
Mapping	480	(27)
Introduction	480	(1)
Availability of Maps and Related Information	481	(1)
National Mapping Program	482	(1)
Accuracy Standards for Mapping	482	(2)
Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures	484	(1)
Map Design	485	(2)
Map Layout	487	(2)
Basic Map Plotting Procedures	489	(2)
Manually Plotting by Coordinates	489	(1)
Plotting Using CADD	489	(2)
Contour Interval	491	(1)
Plotting Contours	491	(1)
Lettering	492	(1)
Cartographic Map Elements	493	(3)
Drafting Materials	496	(1)
Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems	496	(6)
Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping	502	(1)
Sources of Error in Mapping	503	(1)
Mistakes in Mapping	503	(4)
Problems	503	(2)
Bibliography	505	(2)
Astronomical Observations	507	(35)
Introduction	507	(2)
Simple Methods of Determining the Meridian	509	(2)
Shadow Method	509	(1)
Equal Altitudes of the Sun	510	(1)
Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth Determination	511	(1)
Ephemerides	512	(3)
Definitions	515	(3)
Refraction and Parallax	518	(1)
Time	519	(2)
Timing Observations	521	(1)
Star Positions	522	(1)
Azimuth from Polaris Observations	523	(1)
Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle Method	524	(4)
Verification of Field Observations	528	(1)
Locating Polaris in the Telescope	529	(3)
Practical Suggestions for Polaris Observations	532	(1)
Azimuth from Solar Observations	533	(4)
Sources of Error in Astronomical Observations	537	(1)
Mistakes	538	(4)
Problems	538	(3)
Bibliography	541	(1)
Control Surveys and Geodetic Reductions	542	(54)
Introduction	542	(1)
The Ellipsoid and Geoid	543	(2)
The Conventional Terrestrial Pole	545	(2)
Geodetic Position, and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature	547	(2)
Geoid Undulation and Deviation of the Vertical	549	(2)
U.S. Reference Datums	551	(4)
North American Horizontal Datum of 1927 (NAD27)	551	(1)
North American Horizontal Datum of 1983 (NAD83)	552	(1)
Later Versions of NAD83	552	(2)
National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29)	554	(1)
North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)	554	(1)
Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys	555	(3)
The National Spatial Reference System	558	(1)
Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network	559	(1)
Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network	559	(1)
Control Point Descriptions	560	(2)
Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys	562	(5)
Triangulation	563	(1)
Precise Traverse	564	(2)
Trilateration	566	(1)
Combined Networks	567	(1)
Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys	567	(5)
Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values	572	(13)
Reduction of Distance Observations Using Elevations	572	(3)
Reduction of Distance Observations Using Vertical Angles	575	(3)
Reduction of Directions and Angles	578	(3)
Leveling and Orthometric Heights	581	(4)
Geodetic Position Computations	585	(2)
Direct Geodetic Problem	585	(1)
Inverse Geodetic Problem	586	(1)
The Local Geodetic Coordinate System	587	(2)
Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations	589	(2)
Conclusions	591	(5)
Problems	591	(3)
Bibliography	594	(2)
State Plane Coordinates	596	(38)
Introduction	596	(1)
Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems	597	(3)
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection	600	(1)
Transverse Mercator Projection	601	(1)
State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83	601	(2)
Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System	603	(5)
Zone Constants	603	(1)
The Direct Problem	604	(2)
The Inverse Problem	606	(2)
Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System	608	(6)
Zone Constants	608	(1)
The Direct Problem	609	(2)
The Inverse Problem	611	(3)
Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids	614	(10)
Grid Reduction of Distances	615	(4)
Grid Reduction of Azimuths and Angles	619	(5)
Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations	624	(2)
Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another	626	(1)
Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83	627	(1)
The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection	628	(1)
Other Map Projections	628	(6)
Problems	630	(3)
Bibliography	633	(1)
Boundary Surveys	634	(27)
Introduction	634	(1)
Categories of Land Surveys	635	(1)
Historical Perspectives	636	(1)
Property Description by Metes and Bounds	637	(3)
Property Description by Block and Lot System	640	(2)
Property Description by Coordinates	642	(1)
Retracement Surveys	642	(3)
Subdivision Surveys	645	(2)
Partitioning Land	647	(1)
Registration of Title	648	(1)
Adverse Possession and Easements	649	(1)
Condominium Surveys	649	(7)
Geographic and Land Information Systems	656	(1)
Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys	656	(1)
Mistakes	656	(5)
Problems	657	(2)
Bibliography	659	(2)
Surveys of the Public Lands	661	(26)
Introduction	661	(1)
Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands	662	(4)
Initial Point	666	(1)
Principal Meridian	666	(1)
Baseline	667	(1)
Standard Parallels (Correction Lines)	668	(1)
Guide Meridians	668	(1)
Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines	669	(1)
Designation of Townships	670	(1)
Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships	671	(1)
Subdivision of a Township into Sections	672	(2)
Subdivision of Sections	674	(1)
Fractional Sections	674	(1)
Notes	675	(1)
Outline of Subdivision Steps	675	(1)
Marking Corners	675	(1)
Witness Corners	675	(2)
Meander Corners	677	(1)
Lost and Obliterated Corners	677	(3)
Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys	680	(1)
Descriptions by Township Section, and Smaller Subdivision	681	(1)
BLM Land Information System	681	(1)
Sources of Error	682	(1)
Mistakes	683	(4)
Problems	683	(2)
Bibliography	685	(2)
Construction Surveys	687	(26)
Introduction	687	(1)
Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys	688	(2)
Visible Laser-Beam Instruments	688	(2)
Pulsed Laser EDMs	690	(1)
Horizontal and Vertical Control	690	(2)
Staking Out a Pipeline	692	(2)
Staking Pipeline Grades	694	(1)
Staking Out a Building	695	(4)
Staking Out Highways	699	(5)
Other Construction Surveys	704	(1)
Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments	705	(3)
Construction Surveys Using GPS Equipment	708	(1)
As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning	709	(1)
Sources of Error in Construction Surveys	710	(1)
Mistakes	710	(3)
Problems	710	(2)
Bibliography	712	(1)
Horizontal Curves	713	(41)
Introduction	713	(1)
Degree of Circular Curve	714	(2)
Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas	716	(2)
Circular Curve Stationing	718	(2)
General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles	720	(1)
Computing Deflection Angles and Chords	721	(2)
Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords	723	(2)
Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords	725	(1)
Setups on Curve	725	(1)
Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords	726	(2)
Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords	728	(1)
Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve	729	(2)
Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates	731	(5)
Circular Curve Layout by Offsets	736	(3)
Special Circular Curve Problems	739	(2)
Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point	740	(1)
Intersection of a Circular Curve and a Straight Line	740	(1)
Intersection of Two Circular Curves	741	(1)
Compound and Reverse Curves	741	(1)
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves	741	(1)
Spirals	742	(5)
Spiral Geometry	742	(2)
Spiral Calculation and Layout	744	(3)
Computation of ``As-Built'' Circular Alignments	747	(3)
Sources of Error in Laying out Circular Curves	750	(1)
Mistakes	750	(4)
Problems	751	(2)
Bibliography	753	(1)
Vertical Curves	754	(19)
Introduction	754	(1)
General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve	755	(1)
Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve	755	(3)
Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation	758	(3)
Example Computations Using the English System of Units	758	(2)
Example Computations Using the Metric System	760	(1)
Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola	761	(1)
Curve Computations by Proportion	762	(1)
Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve	763	(1)
Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve	763	(3)
High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve	766	(1)
Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point	767	(1)
Sight Distance	768	(2)
Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves	770	(1)
Mistakes	770	(3)
Problems	771	(1)
Bibliography	772	(1)
Volumes	773	(20)
Introduction	773	(1)
Methods of Volume Measurement	773	(1)
The Cross-Section Method	774	(1)
Types of Cross Sections	775	(1)
Average End Area Formula	776	(2)
Determining End Areas	778	(2)
End Areas by Simple Figures	778	(1)
End Areas by Coordinates	779	(1)
Computing Slope Intercepts	780	(1)
Prismoidal Formula	781	(2)
Volume Computations	783	(1)
Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method	784	(2)
Contour-Area Method	786	(1)
Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge	787	(1)
Sources of Error in Determining Volumes	788	(1)
Mistakes	788	(5)
Problems	789	(2)
Bibliography	791	(2)
Photogrammetry	793	(46)
Introduction	793	(1)
Uses of Photogrammetry	794	(1)
Aerial Cameras	795	(2)
Types of Aerial Photographs	797	(1)
Vertical Aerial Photographs	797	(3)
Scale of a Vertical Photograph	800	(4)
Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph	804	(1)
Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph	805	(2)
Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph	807	(1)
Stereoscopic Parallax	808	(3)
Stereoscopic Viewing	811	(2)
Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax	813	(1)
Analytical Photogrammetry	814	(1)
Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments	815	(8)
Direct Optical Projection Stereoplotters	816	(2)
Mechanical Projection Stereoplotters	818	(1)
Analytical Stereoplotters	819	(2)
Softcopy Stereoplotters	821	(2)
Orthophotos	823	(1)
Ground Control for Photogrammetry	824	(1)
Flight Planning	825	(3)
Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems	828	(1)
Remote Sensing	828	(6)
Sources of Error in Photogrammetry	834	(1)
Mistakes	834	(5)
Problems	834	(3)
Bibliography	837	(2)
Introduction to Geographic Information Systems	839	(28)
Introduction	839	(3)
Land Information Systems	842	(1)
GIS Data Sources and Classifications	842	(1)
Spatial Data	842	(6)
Simple Spatial Objects	843	(1)
Vector and Raster Formats	844	(3)
Topology	847	(1)
Nonspatial Data	848	(1)
Data Format Conversions	849	(2)
Vector-to-Raster Conversion	849	(2)
Raster-to-Vector Conversion	851	(1)
Creating GIS Databases	851	(6)
Generating Digital Data from Field Surveys	852	(1)
Digitizing from Aerial Photos with Stereoplotters	853	(1)
Digitizing Existing Graphic Materials	853	(2)
Scanning	855	(1)
Keyboard Entry	856	(1)
Existing Digital Data Sets	857	(1)
Metadata	857	(1)
GIS Analytical Functions	858	(4)
Proximity Analysis	858	(1)
Boundary Operations	859	(1)
Spatial Joins	860	(1)
Logical Operations	861	(1)
Other GIS Functions	862	(1)
GIS Applications	862	(5)
Problems	863	(2)
Bibliography	865	(2)
APPENDIX A DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES	867	(15)
A.1 Introduction	867	(1)
A.2 The Dumpy Level	868	(1)
A.3 Introduction to the Transit and Theodolite	869	(3)
A.4 The Transit	872	(5)
A.4.1 Parts of a Transit	872	(1)
A.4.2 Circle Scales and Verniers	873	(2)
A.4.3 Properties of the Transit	875	(1)
A.4.4 Handling, Setting up, and Using a Transit	875	(2)
A.5 The Theodolite	877	(5)
A.5.1 Characteristics of Theodolites	878	(1)
A.5.2 Repeating Theodolites	879	(1)
A.5.3 Directional Theodolites	880	(1)
A.5.4 Handling, Setting up, and Using a Thedolite	881	(1)
APPENDIX B EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS	882	(7)
APPENDIX C TARGET HEIGHT AND LATITUDE CORRECTIONS TO OBSERVED AZIMUTHS	889	(3)
C.1 Introduction	889	(1)
C.2 Target Height Reduction	889	(1)
C.3 Correction for Target Station at Different Latitude	890	(2)
APPENDIX D USING THE WORKSHEETS ON THE COMPANION DISK	892	(6)
D.1 Introduction	892	(1)
D.2 Using the Files	893	(3)
D.3 Using the Worksheets as an Aid in Learning	896	(2)
APPENDIX E ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS	898	(5)
Index	903