The Mechanisms of Explosions 27 Case Studies for their Understanding

The risk of explosion is inseparable from industrial activity, as we are often reminded by the news. In order to avoid an explosion, it is necessary to understand the phenomena surrounding it, and take the necessary preventive measures to protect society if it comes to the worst-case scenario. This book will detail these phenomena.

The Mechanisms of Explosions presents theoretical aspects from a physicochemical point of view and proposes various methods adapted to each type of explosion, including ATEX explosions. The author shares his knowledge of the mechanisms of explosions, acquired during numerous investigations.

These 27 case studies – detailing circumstances, mechanisms and the nature and intensity of explosive effects – were selected to cover all of the possible physical or chemical phenomena, substances and mechanisms, without limiting themselves to the most common situations.

This book, packed full of information, is designed to benefit those who analyze and investigate explosions, particularly insurance and judicial experts, prevention engineers, security managers and trainers.

Jacques Chaineaux has a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Strasbourg, France. He has analyzed nearly one hundred cases of industrial explosions over the span of 40 years, as well as domestic explosions, as a judiciary expert for the Courts of Appeal.

Contents

Foreword .

Acknowledgments .

Introduction .

Part 1 General Information and Approach 1

Chapter 1 The Explosion Phenomenon 3

1.1 Explosion of an ATEX 4

1.1.1 Definition of an ATEX 4

1.1.2 Case of an ATEX consisting of a combustible dust dispersed in air 23

1.1.3 Case of a hybrid ATEX 25

1.1.4 Evaluation of the released energy E lib .

25

1.2 Chemical systems other than ATEX 39

1.2.1 Definition elements 39

1.2.2 Evaluation of E lib

40

1.2.3 Flame propagation regimes in explosive system 1 or 2 40

1.3 Hollow body rupture (or bursting) 44

1.3.1 Definition elements 44

1.3.2 Evaluation of E lib

45

1.4 Superheated liquid vaporization 46

1.4.1 Definition elements 46

1.4.2 Evaluation of E lib

46

1.5 Comparison of E lib with the energy E eff required to produce the explosion effects 47

xiii

xv

xvii

Chapter 2 Method of Investigating an Explosion 49

2.1 Introduction 49

2.2 Establishment of the explosion mechanism 49

2.3 Search for answers to the questions of HOW MUCH and WHAT 50

2.4 Identification of the different types of damage produced by an explosion 51

2.4.1 Effects on structures 52

2.4.2 Effects on the human body 54

2.5 Estimation of the energy required to produce the mechanical effects 55

2.5.1 E eff estimation tools .

56

2.5.2 Comparison between E eff and E lib 64

2.5.3 Order of magnitude of the yield ρ for each type of explosive system 65

2.6 Hypothesis on the type of explosion involved 66

2.7 Estimation of the quantity of the explosive system involved 66

2.7.1 General case 66

2.7.2 Specific case of an ATEX explosion occurring in a confined environment 67

2.8 Evaluation of the hypothesis on the type of explosion involved 67

2.8.1 Compatibility of the hypothesis with the circumstances of the explosion 67

2.8.2 Cases of explosions which may a priori involve different systems 68

2.9 Search for answers to the question of HOW? 71

2.10 Representation of the mechanism of explosion by tree of events 71

Part 2 27 Case Studies of Domestic or Industrial Explosions 73

Introduction to Part 2 75

P2.1 Domestic explosions 78

P2.1.1 Determination of ATEX location and volume 79

P2.1.2 Thermal effects of an explosion on buildings and the human body 82

P2.1.3 Mechanical effects of an explosion in a housing 83

Case 1 Discrimination Between NG and Butane 87

C1.1 Different arguments tentatively used for discrimination 87

C1.2 Thermal effects of the flame 87

C1.3 Mechanical effects of the explosion 88

C1.4 Relevant arguments used for the elimination of a butane leak 88

C1.5 Identified mechanism 89

Case 2 Determination of the Mechanism of an Accident Involving a Fire and an Explosion 91

C2.1 Circumstances and effects of the explosion 91

C2.2 Occurrence of a fire prior to the explosion 91

Case 3 Determination of the Mechanism of an Accident Involving a Fire and Two Explosions 93

C3.1 Nature of the flammable gases or liquids involved in the first explosion 93

C3.2 Determination of the explosion mechanism 94

Case 4 Determination of the Mechanism of an Explosion from the Leak Flow Rate of NG 97

Case 5 Determination of the Mechanism of a Propane Explosion from the Leak Flow Rate 101

Case 6 Determination of the Explosion Mechanism, Based on the Location of the Ignition Source of ATEX 103

C6.1 Circumstances of the explosion 103

C6.2 Discrimination between the boiler leak and the cooker oven leak 104

Lessons learned from the investigation of domestic explosions 106

Case 7 Explosion of a Hydrogenated ATEX in a Pulp Paper Tank 109

C7.1 Description of facilities, circumstances and effects of the explosion 109

C7.2 Objectives of the investigation 110

C7.3 Determination of the composition of the ATEX 110

C7.3.1 Experimental determination of the ATEX components 110

C7.3.2 Determination of the ATEX conditions, formation and ignition 112

C7.3.3 Consistency between the explosion effects and the estimated ATEX volume 112

C7.4 Conclusion 113

Lessons learned from the investigation of the explosion of a hydrogenated Atex 113

Case 8 Explosion of a Hydrogenated ATEX in an Electrolyzer Cell 115

C8.1 Description of facilities and explosion circumstances 115

C8.2 Effects of the explosion 115

C8.3 Investigation objectives 115

C8.3.1 Formation and location of an ATEX in the electrolyzer 116

C8.3.2 Results of experimental study 116

C8.3.3 Consistency between the mechanical effects and the overpressure 116

Lessons learned from Cases 7 and 8 117

Case 9 Explosion of an Air–Propane ATEX 119

C9.1 Case presentation 119

C9.1.1 Description of the facilities 119

C9.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 120

C9.1.3 Explosion damage 120

C9.1.4 Establishment of the explosion mechanism 121

Lessons learned from the investigation 125

Case 10 Explosion in a Refinery 127

C10.1 Case presentation 127

C10.1.1 Description of facilities and circumstances of explosion 127

C10.1.2 Flame propagation regime 128

C10.1.3 Effects of explosion 128

Lessons from the investigation 130

Case 11 Explosions in Recovery Facilities for Cupola Gases 131

C11.1 Case presentation 131

C11.1.1 Description of the facilities 131

C11.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 132

C11.1.3 Explosion damage 132

C11.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 133

C11.1.5 Flammability of the CGs involved in the explosion 133

Lessons learned from investigation of explosion in cupola facilities 145

Case 12 Explosion of Acetone Vapor 147

C12.1 Case presentation 147

C12.1.1 Description of the facilities 147

C12.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 148

C12.1.3 Description of explosion damage 148

C12.1.4 Mechanism of the explosion 149

Lessons from investigation of an explosion of acetone vapor 154

Case 13 Explosion of Vapor of Toluene 155

C13.1 Case presentation 155

C13.1.1. Description of the facility and of the circumstances of the explosion 155

C13.1.2 Effects of the explosion 155

C13.1.3 Determination of the mechanism of the explosion 156

Lessons learned from the investigation of an explosion of toluene vapor 158

Case 14 Explosion of Vapor of Kerosene 159

C14.1 Case presentation 159

C14.1.1 Description of the facility 159

C14.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 159

C14.1.3 Description of explosion damage 160

C14.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 160

Lessons from the investigation of an explosion of kerosene vapor in contact with a hot surface 166

Case 15 Explosion of Volatile Hydrocarbons 167

C15.1 Case presentation 167

C15.1.1 Description of the facility and the circumstances of the explosion 167

C15.1.2 Description of explosion damage 167

C15.1.3 Mechanism of explosion 168

C15.1.4 Estimation of energy released by explosion 173

Lessons to be learned from the investigation of explosion of volatile hydrocarbons 175

Case 16 Explosion in a Spray Dryer of Powdered Milk 177

C16.1 Case presentation 177

C16.1.1 Description of the facility 177

C16.1.2 Circumstances and effects of the explosion 178

C16.1.3 Flammability and explosion characteristics of milk powder 179

C16.1.4 Mechanism of explosion 181

Lessons learned from the expertise of an explosion in a dryer 182

Case 17 Explosion in a Wood Waste Grinding Facility 185

C17.1 Case presentation 185

C17.1.1 Description of the facility 186

C17.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 187

C17.1.3 Effects of the explosion 187

C17.1.4 Flammability characteristics of the wood dust 188

C17.1.5 Determination of the mechanism of explosion 189

Lessons learned from the investigation 191

Case 18 Explosion of a Chloroduct 193

C18.1 Case presentation 193

C18.2 Circumstances of the explosion 193

C18.3 Effects of explosion 193

C18.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 195

C18.4.1 Explosive system identification 195

C18.4.2 Estimation of the rupture pressure P r of the chloroduct .

198

C18.4.3 Different arguments for a detonation of the hydrogen–chlorine mixture 198

Lessons learned from investigation of the explosion of a chloroduct 200

Case 19 Combustion of Steel in Oxygen 201

C19.1 Case presentation 201

C19.1.1 Description of the facility 201

C19.1.2 Circumstances of the accident 203

C19.1.3 Effects 203

C19.1.4 Mechanism of the accident 204

Lessons learned from investigation of combustion in oxygen 206

Case 20 Explosion in an Aluminum Foundry 207

C20.1 Case presentation 207

C20.1.1 Description of the facility 207

C20.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 208

C20.1.3 Explosion effects 208

C20.1.4 Determination of the mechanism of explosion 211

Lessons from investigation of an explosion in an aluminum foundry 215

Case 21 Explosion in a Laboratory Nitration Test 217

C21.1 Case presentation 217

C21.1.1 Nature of the explosive system 217

C21.1.2 Experimental validation of the conditions of the runaway reaction 218

C21.1.3 Results 218

C21.1.4 Conclusion of the tests 221

Lessons learned from investigation of a burst vessel 221

Case 22 Explosion in a Chemical Reactor 223

C22.1 Case presentation 223

C22.1.1 Description of the chemical synthesis process 223

C22.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 224

C22.1.3 Effects of the explosion 224

C22.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 225

C22.1.5 Description of the explosion process 227

Lessons learned from the investigation 228

Case 23 Explosion and Fire Resulting from an Oxidation by KMnO 4 229

C23.1 Case presentation 229

C23.1.1 Circumstances of the explosion 229

C23.1.2 Effects of the explosion 230

C23.1.3 Fire resulting from an ignition of formaldehyde by KMnO 4 .

233

Lessons learned from the investigation 233

Case 24 Explosion Involving Hydrazine 235

C24.1 Case presentation 235

C24.1.1 Description of the experimental conditions 236

C24.1.2 Results 237

C24.1.3 Origin of an overpressure in a UHH tank 241

Lessons learned from the investigation 241

Case 25 Burst of a Steel Gas Cylinder 243

C25.1 Case presentation 243

C25.1.1 Circumstances of the burst 243

C25.1.2 Effects of the burst 243

C25.1.3 Determination of the mechanism of the burst 247

C25.1.4 Conclusions of the investigation 259

Lessons learned from the investigation 260

Case 26 Explosion in a Foundry of Steel Waste 263

C26.1 Case presentation 263

C26.1.1 Description of the facility 263

C26.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 263

C26.1.3 Effects of explosion 263

C26.1.4 Estimation of E eff based on damage analysis .

264

C26.1.5 Determination of the explosion mechanism 265

C26.1.6 Yield of the explosion 265

Lessons learned from the investigation 266

Case 27 Explosion in the Boiler of a Household Waste Incinerator 267

C27.1 Case presentation 267

C27.1.1 Facility description 267

C27.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 268

C27.1.3 Description of damage 268

C27.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 269

C27.1.5 Protection of the boiler against the effects of an explosion 273

Lessons learned from investigation 275

Conclusion 277

References 281

Index 283

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