Chemical characterisation techniques have been essential tools in underpinning the explosion in nanotechnology in recent years and nanocharacterisation is a rapidly developing field. Contributions in this book from leading teams across the globe provide an overview of the different microscopic techniques now in regular use for the characterisation of nanostructures. Essentially a handbook to all working in the field this indispensable resource provides a survey of microscopy based techniques with experimental procedures and extensive examples of state of the art characterisation methods including: " Transmission Electron Microscopy " Electron Tomography " Tunneling Microscopy " Electron Holography " Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy This timely publication will appeal to academics, professionals and anyone working fields related to the research and development of nanocharacterisation and nanotechnology.

Characterisation of Nanomaterials Using Transmission Electron Microscopy
Introduction	p. 1
Imaging	p. 3
Transmission Electron Microscopy	p. 3
High-Resolution Electron Microscopy	p. 3
Basis of High-Resolution Imaging	p. 5
Resolution Limits	p. 7
Lattice Imaging or Atomic Imaging	p. 9
Instrumental Parameters	p. 9
Survey of Applications	p. 10
Developments in HREM	p. 10
Small Particles and Precipitates	p. 12
Two-Dimensional Objects	p. 13
One-Dimensional Objects	p. 14
Zero-Dimensional Objects	p. 15
Surfaces and Interfaces	p. 16
Emerging Trends and Practical Concerns	p. 18
Atomic Location and Quantitative Imaging	p. 18
Detection and Correction of Aberrations	p. 19
The Stobbs' Factor	p. 22
Radiation Damage	p. 22
Prospects	p. 24
Acknowledgments	p. 24
References	p. 24
Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy
Introduction	p. 28
Basic Description	p. 29
Detectors	p. 30
Electron Energy-loss Spectroscopy	p. 31
Aberration Corrected STEM	p. 35
The Aberration Function	p. 35
Spherical and Chromatic Aberration	p. 36
Aberration Correctors	p. 38
What Do We See in a Stem?	p. 39
Measuring Aberrations	p. 45
Phonons	p. 46
Resolution	p. 47
Three-Dimensional Microscopy	p. 48
Channeling	p. 50
Applications to Nanostructure Characterisation in Catalysis	p. 51
Anomalous Pt-Pt Distances in Pt/alumina Catalytic Systems	p. 51
La Stabilisation of Catalytic Supports	p. 53
CO Oxidation by Supported Noble-Metal Nanoparticles	p. 56
Summary and Outlook	p. 59
Acknowledgements	p. 60
References	p. 60
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of Surfaces and Nanostructures
History of the STM	p. 66
The Tunneling Interaction and Basic Operating Principles of STM	p. 67
Atomic-Resolution Imaging of Surface Reconstructions	p. 70
Imaging of Surface Nanostructures	p. 74
Manipulation of Adsorbed Atoms and Molecules	p. 78
Influence of the Surface Electronic States on STM Images	p. 83
Tunneling Spectroscopy	p. 86
Tip Artefacts in STM Imaging	p. 88
Conclusions	p. 90
References	p. 91
Electron Energy-loss Spectroscopy and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis
What is Nanoanalysis?	p. 94
Nanoanalysis in the Electron Microscope	p. 95
General Instrumentation	p. 96
X-Ray Analysis in the TEM	p. 99
Basics of X-Ray Analysis	p. 99
Analysis and Quantification of X-Ray Emission Spectra	p. 102
Application to the Analysis of Nanometre Volumes in the S/TEM	p. 104
Related Photon Emission Techniques in the TEM	p. 108
Basics of EELS	p. 108
Instrumentation for EELS	p. 108
Basics of the EEL Spectrum	p. 112
Quantification of EELS - The Determination of Chemical Composition	p. 116
Determination of Electronic Structure and Bonding	p. 118
Application to the Analysis of Nanometre Volumes in the S/TEM	p. 127
EELS Imaging	p. 131
Radiation Damage	p. 133
Emerging Techniques	p. 135
Conclusions	p. 136
References	p. 136
Electron Holography of Nanostructured Materials
Introduction	p. 138
Basis of Off-Axis Electron Holography	p. 139
Experimental Considerations	p. 143
The Mean Inner Potential Contribution to the Phase Shift	p. 144
Measurement of Magnetic Fields	p. 146
Early Experiments	p. 146
Experiments Involving Digital Acquisition and Analysis	p. 146
Measurement of Electrostatic Fields	p. 162
Electrically Biased Nanowires	p. 162
Dopant Potentials in Semiconductors	p. 164
Space-Charge Layers at Grain Boundaries	p. 170
High-Resolution Electron Holography	p. 171
Alternative Forms of Electron Holography	p. 173
Discussion, Prospects for the Future and Conclusions	p. 175
Acknowledgements	p. 177
References	p. 177
Electron Tomography
Introduction	p. 184
Theory of Electron Tomography	p. 187
From Projections to Reconstructions	p. 187
Backprojection: Real-Space Reconstruction	p. 191
Constrained Reconstructions	p. 192
Reconstruction Resolution	p. 196
Measuring Reconstruction Resolution	p. 197
The Projection Requirement	p. 198
Acquiring Tilt Series	p. 200
Instrumental Considerations	p. 201
Specimen Support and Positioning	p. 204
Specimen Considerations	p. 204
Alignment of Tilt Series	p. 208
Alignment by Tracking of Fiducial Markers	p. 210
Alignment by Cross-Correlation	p. 210
Rotational Alignment without Fiducial Markers	p. 213
Other Markerless Alignment Techniques	p. 218
Visualisation, Segmentation and Data Mining	p. 218
Visualisation Techniques	p. 218
Segmentation	p. 221
Quantitative Analysis	p. 224
Imaging Modes	p. 225
Bright-Field TEM	p. 225
Dark-Field (DF) Tomography	p. 234
HAADF STEM	p. 236
Meeting the Projection Requirement	p. 237
Experimental Considerations	p. 238
Limitations	p. 242
Core-Loss (Chemical Mapping) EFTEM	p. 246
Low-Loss EFTEM	p. 252
Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Mapping	p. 252
Holographic Tomography	p. 254
New Techniques	p. 254
Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) Spectrum Imaging	p. 254
Confocal STEM	p. 255
Atomistic Tomography	p. 256
Conclusions	p. 259
References	p. 259
In-situ Environmental Transmission Electron Microscopy
Introduction	p. 268
Background	p. 269
Recent Advances in Atomic-Resolution In-Situ ETEM	p. 270
Impact of Atomic-Resolution In-Situ ETEM and Applications	p. 273
Applications of Atomic-Resolution In-Situ ETEM to Studies of Gas-Catalyst and Liquid-Catalyst Reactions	p. 274
Liquid-Phase Hydrogenation and Polymerisation Reactions	p. 274
Development of Nanocatalysts for Novel Hydrogenation Chemistry and Dynamic Imaging of Desorbed Organic Products in Liquid-Phase Reactions	p. 275
Butane Oxidation Technology	p. 278
In-Situ Observations of Carbon Nanotubes in Chemical and Thermal Environments	p. 284
Conclusions	p. 287
Acknowledgements	p. 288
References	p. 288
Subject Index	p. 291
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Nanocharacterisation

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