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9780199275373

Principles of Development

by ; ; ; ; ;
  • ISBN13:

    9780199275373

  • ISBN10:

    0199275378

  • Edition: 3rd
  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2006-08-09
  • Publisher: Oxford University Press
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List Price: $128.00

Summary

Completely updated and revised in a new edition, Principles of Development presents major principles and concepts in the field for an undergraduate audience. Emphasizing gene control as the key to understanding development, the third edition is written in accessible prose, utilizing an impressive art program - 650 full color figures - as well as summaries and diagrams throughout the text to illuminate conceptually challenging material. In addition, the third edition presents carefully selected articles for further reading that expound on principles covered in the text.

Author Biography


Lewis Wolpert, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University College London
Jim Smith, Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, Cambridge
Tom Jessell, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, University of Columbia, New York Peter Lawrence, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Elizabeth Robertson, The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford
Elliot Meyerowitz, California Institute of Technology

Table of Contents

History and basic concepts
The origins of developmental biology
3(10)
Aristotle first defined the problem of epigenesis and preformation
3(1)
Box 1A Basic stages of Xenopus laevis development
4(1)
Cell theory changed the conception of embryonic development and heredity
5(1)
Two main types of development were originally proposed
6(1)
The discovery of induction showed that one group of cells could determine the development of neighboring cells
7(1)
The study of development was stimulated by the coming together of genetics and development
8(1)
Development is studied mainly through a selection of model organisms
9(2)
The first developmental genes were identified as spontaneous mutations
11(2)
A conceptual tool kit
13(19)
Development involves cell division, the emergence of pattern, change in form, cell differentiation, and growth
13(2)
Box 1B Germ layers
15(1)
Cell behavior provides the link between gene action and developmental processes
16(1)
Genes control cell behavior by specifying which proteins are made
17(1)
The expression of developmental genes is under the control of complex control regions
18(1)
Development is progressive and the fate of cells becomes determined at different times
19(3)
Inductive interactions can make cells different from each other
22(1)
The response to inductive signals depends on the state of the cell
23(1)
Patterning can involve the interpretation of positional information
23(2)
Lateral inhibition can generate spacing patterns
25(1)
Localization of cytoplasmic determinants and asymmetric cell division can make cells different from each other
25(1)
The embryo contains a generative rather than a descriptive program
26(1)
The reliability of development is achieved by a variety of means
27(1)
The complexity of embryonic development is due to the complexity of cells themselves
27(5)
Development of the Drosophila body plan
Drosophila life cycle and overall development
32(5)
The early Drosophila embryo is a multinucleate syncytium
33(1)
Cellularization is followed by gastrulation, segmentation, and the formation of the larval nervous system
33(1)
After hatching the Drosophila larva develops through several larval stages, pupates, and then undergoes morphogenesis to become an adult
34(1)
Many developmental mutations have been identified in Drosophila through induced mutation and large-scale genetic screening
35(1)
Box 2A Mutagenesis and genetic screening strategy for identifying developmental mutants in Drosophila
36(1)
Setting up the body axes
37(10)
The body axes are set up while the Drosophila embryo is still a syncytium
37(1)
Maternal factors set up the body axes and direct the early stage of Drosophila development
38(2)
Three classes of maternal genes specify the antero-posterior axis
40(1)
The bicoid gene provides an antero-posterior gradient of morphogen
41(1)
The posterior pattern is controlled by the gradients of Nanos and Caudal proteins
42(1)
The anterior and posterior extremities of the embryo are specified by cell-surface receptor activation
43(1)
The dorso-ventral polarity of the embryo is specified by localization of maternal proteins in the egg vitelline envelope
44(1)
Positional information along the dorso-ventral axis is provided by the Dorsal protein
45(1)
Box 2B The Toll signaling pathway: a multifunctional pathway
46(1)
Localization of maternal determinants during oogenesis
47(5)
The antero-posterior axis of the Drosophila egg is specified by signals from the preceding egg chamber and by interactions of the oocyte with follicle cells
48(3)
The dorso-ventral axis of the egg is specified by movement of the oocyte nucleus followed by signaling between oocyte and follicle cells
51(1)
Patterning the early embryo
52(9)
The expression of zygotic genes along the dorso-ventral axis is controlled by Dorsal protein
52(3)
The Decapentaplegic protein acts as a morphogen to pattern the dorsal region
55(2)
The antero-posterior axis is divided up into broad regions by gap-gene expression
57(1)
Bicoid protein provides a positional signal for the anterior expression of hunchback
57(1)
The gradient in Hunchback protein activates and represses other gap genes
58(1)
Box 2C P-element-mediated transformation
59(2)
Activation of the pair-rule genes and the establishment of parasegments
61(4)
Parasegments are delimited by expression of pair-rule genes in a periodic pattern
61(1)
Gap-gene activity positions stripes of pair-rule gene expression
62(3)
Segmentation genes and compartments
65(13)
Expression of the engrailed gene delimits a cell-lineage boundary and defines a compartment
65(3)
Box 2D Genetic mosaics and mitotic recombination
68(2)
Segmentation genes stabilize parasegment boundaries and set up a focus of signaling at the boundary that patterns the segment
70(3)
Insect epidermal cells become individually polarized in an antero-posterior direction in the plane of the epithelium
73(2)
Box 2E Planar cell polarity
75(1)
Some insects use different mechanisms for patterning the body plan
76(2)
Specification of segment identity
78(12)
Segment identity in Drosophila is specified by genes of the Antennapedia and bithorax complexes
78(1)
Homeotic selector genes of the bithorax complex are responsible for diversification of the posterior segments
79(1)
The Antennapedia complex controls specification of anterior regions
80(1)
The order of Hox gene expression corresponds to the order of genes along the chromosome
81(1)
The Drosophila head region is specified by genes other than the Hox genes
81(1)
Box 2F Targeted gene expression and misexpression screening
82(8)
Patterning the vertebrate body plan I: axes and germ layers
Vertebrate life cycles and outlines of development
90(18)
The frog Xenopus laevis is the model amphibian for developmental studies
92(1)
Box 3A Polar bodies
93(3)
The zebrafish embryo develops around a large, undivided yolk
96(2)
The early chicken embryo develops as a flat disc of cells overlying a massive yolk
98(1)
Box 3B Large-scale mutagenesis in zebrafish
99(5)
Early development in the mouse involves the allocation of cells to form the placenta and extra-embryonic membranes
104(4)
Setting up the body axes
108(17)
The animal-vegetal axis is maternally determined in Xenopus and zebrafish
109(1)
Localized stabilization of the transcriptional regulator β-catenin specifies the future dorsal side and the location of the main embryonic organizer in Xenopus and zebrafish
110(1)
Box 3C Intercellular signals in development
111(1)
Box 3D In situ detection of gene expression
112(3)
Signaling centers develop on the dorsal side of Xenopus and zebrafish
115(2)
The antero-posterior and dorso-ventral axes of the chick blastoderm are related to the primitive streak
117(2)
The axes of the mouse embryo are not recognizable early in development
119(2)
The bilateral symmetry of the early embryo is broken to produce left-right asymmetry of internal organs
121(4)
The origin and specification of the germ layers
125(26)
A fate map of the amphibian blastula is constructed by following the fate of labeled cells
125(2)
The fate maps of vertebrates are variations on a basic plan
127(1)
Cells of early vertebrate embryos do not yet have their fates determined and regulation is possible
128(2)
Box 3E Producing developmental mutations in mice
130(1)
In Xenopus the endoderm and ectoderm are specified by maternal factors, but the mesoderm is induced from ectoderm by signals from the vegetal region
130(2)
Mesoderm induction occurs during a limited period in the blastula stage
132(1)
Zygotic gene expression is turned on at the mid-blastula transition
133(1)
Mesoderm-inducing and patterning signals are produced by the vegetal region, the organizer, and the ventral mesoderm
134(2)
Members of the TGF-β family have been identified as mesoderm inducers
136(1)
The dorso-ventral patterning of the mesoderm involves the antagonistic actions of dorsalizing and ventralizing factors
137(2)
Mesoderm induction and patterning in the chick and mouse occurs during primitive-streak formation
139(1)
Gradients in signaling proteins and threshold responses could pattern the mesoderm
140(11)
Patterning the vertebrate body plan II: the somites and early nervous system
Somite formation and antero-posterior patterning
151(15)
Somites are formed in a well defined order along the antero-posterior axis
151(4)
Identity of somites along the antero-posterior axis is specified by Hox gene expression
155(1)
Box 4A The Hox genes
156(2)
Box 4B Gene targeting: insertional mutagenesis and gene knock-out
158(4)
Deletion or overexpression of Hox genes causes changes in axial patterning
162(1)
Hox gene activation is related to a timing mechanism
163(1)
The fate of somite cells is determined by signals from the adjacent tissues
164(2)
The role of the organizer and neural induction
166(20)
The inductive capacity of the organizer changes during gastrulation
167(2)
The neural plate is induced in the ectoderm
169(4)
The nervous system can be patterned by signals from the mesoderm
173(2)
There is an organizer at the midbrain-hindbrain boundary
175(1)
The hindbrain is segmented into rhombomeres by boundaries of cell-lineage restriction
175(2)
Neural crest cells arise from the borders of the neural plate
177(1)
Hox genes provide positional information in the developing hindbrain
178(1)
The embryo is patterned by the neurula stage into organ-forming regions that can still regulate
179(7)
Development of nematodes, sea urchins, ascidians, and slime molds
Nematodes
186(16)
Box 5A Gene silencing by RNA interference
189(1)
The antero-posterior axis in C. elegans is determined by asymmetric cell division
190(1)
The dorso-ventral axis in C. elegans is determined by cell-cell interactions
191(2)
Both asymmetric divisions and cell-cell interactions specify cell fate in the early nematode embryo
193(2)
A small cluster of Hox genes specifies cell fate along the antero-posterior axis
195(1)
The timing of events in nematode development is under genetic control that involves microRNAs
196(1)
Box 5B Gene silencing by microRNAs
197(2)
Vulval development is initiated by the induction of a small number of cells by short-range signals from a single inducing cell
199(3)
Echinoderms
202(10)
The sea urchin embryo develops into a free-swimming larva
202(1)
The sea urchin egg is polarized along the animal-vegetal axis
203(2)
The oral-aboral axis in sea urchins is related to the plane of the first cleavage
205(1)
The sea urchin fate map is finely specified, yet considerable regulation is possible
206(1)
The vegetal region of the sea urchin embryo acts as an organizer
207(1)
The sea urchin vegetal region is specified by nuclear accumulation of β-catenin
208(2)
The genetic control of endomesoderm specification is known in considerable detail
210(2)
Ascidians
212(5)
In ascidians, muscle is specified by localized cytoplasmic factors
214(1)
Mesenchyme and notochord development in ascidians require signals from the endoderm
215(2)
Cellular slime molds
217(11)
Patterning of the slime mold slug involves cell sorting and positional signaling
218(1)
Chemical signals direct cell differentiation in the slime mold
219(7)
Plant development
The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana has a short life cycle and a small diploid genome
226(2)
Embryonic development
228(6)
Plant embryos develop through several distinct stages
228(1)
Box 6A Angiosperm embryogenesis
229(2)
Gradients of the signal molecule auxin establish the embryonic apical-basal axis
231(1)
Plant somatic cells can give rise to embryos and seedlings
232(2)
Box 6B Transgenic plants
234(1)
Meristems
234(12)
A meristem contains a small central zone of self-renewing stem cells
235(1)
The size of the stem-cell area in the meristem is kept constant by a feedback loop to the organizing center
236(1)
The fate of cells from different meristem layers can be changed by changing their position
237(1)
A fate map for the embryonic shoot meristem can be deduced using clonal analysis
238(2)
Meristem development is dependent on signals from other parts of the plant
240(1)
Gene activity patterns the proximo-distal and adaxial-abaxial axes of leaves developing from the shoot meristem
240(2)
The regular arrangement of leaves on a stem and trichomes on leaves is generated by competition and lateral inhibition
242(1)
Root tissues are produced from Arabidopsis root apical meristems by a highly stereotyped pattern of cell divisions
243(3)
Flower development and control of flowering
246(12)
Homeotic genes control organ identity in the flower
246(3)
Box 6C The basic model for the patterning of the Arabidopsis flower
249(1)
The Antirrhinum flower is patterned dorso-ventrally as well as radially
250(1)
The internal meristem layer can specify floral meristem patterning
251(1)
The transition of a shoot meristem to a floral meristem is under environmental and genetic control
251(7)
Morphogenesis: change in form in the early embryo
Cell adhesion
258(4)
Box 7A Cell-adhesion molecules and cell junctions
259(1)
Sorting out of dissociated cells demonstrates differences in cell adhesiveness in different tissues
260(1)
Cadherins can provide adhesive specificity
261(1)
Cleavage and formation of the blastula
262(7)
The asters of the mitotic apparatus determine the plane of cleavage at cell division
263(1)
Cells become polarized in early mouse and sea urchin blastulas
264(2)
Ion transport is involved in fluid accumulation in the frog blastocoel
266(1)
Internal cavities can be created by cell death
267(2)
Gastrulation movements
269(14)
Gastrulation in the sea urchin involves cell migration and invagination
269(1)
Box 7B Change in cell shape and cell movement
270(3)
Mesoderm invagination in Drosophila is due to changes in cell shape that are controlled by genes that pattern the dorso-ventral axis
273(2)
Germ-band extension in Drosophila involves myosin-dependent intercalation
275(1)
Dorsal closure in Drosophila and ventral closure in C. elegans are brought about by the action of filopodia
276(1)
Vertebrate gastrulation involves several different types of tissue movement
276(4)
Convergent extension and epiboly are due to different types of cell intercalation
280(3)
Neural-tube formation
283(3)
Neural-tube formation is driven by changes in cell shape and cell migration
284(2)
Cell migration
286(4)
Neural crest migration is controlled by environmental cues and adhesive differences
286(2)
Slime mold aggregation involves chemotaxis and signal propagation
288(2)
Directed dilation
290(11)
Later extension and stiffening of the notochord occurs by directed dilation
290(1)
Circumferential contraction of hypodermal cells elongates the nematode embryo
291(1)
The direction of cell enlargement can determine the form of a plant leaf
292(7)
Cell differentiation and stem cells
Box 8A DNA microarrays for studying gene expression
299(2)
The control of gene expression
301(8)
Control of transcription involves both general and tissue-specific transcriptional regulators
301(2)
External signals can activate genes
303(2)
Maintenance and inheritance of patterns of gene activity may depend on chemical and structural modifications to chromatin as well as on regulatory proteins
305(4)
Models of cell differentiation
309(18)
All blood cells are derived from multipotent stem cells
310(2)
Colony-stimulating factors and intrinsic changes control differentiation of the hematopoietic lineages
312(2)
Developmentally regulated globin gene expression is controlled by regulatory sequences far distant from the coding regions
314(2)
Differentiation of cells that make antibodies involves irreversible DNA rearrangement
316(2)
The epithelia of adult mammalian skin and gut are continually replaced by derivatives of stem cells
318(1)
A family of genes can activate muscle-specific transcription
319(1)
The differentiation of muscle cells involves withdrawal from the cell cycle, but is reversible
320(1)
Skeletal muscle and neural cells can be renewed from stem cells in adults
321(1)
Embryonic neural crest cells differentiate into a great variety of different cell types
322(2)
Programmed cell death is under genetic control
324(3)
The plasticity of gene expression
327(13)
Nuclei of differentiated cells can support development
327(2)
Patterns of gene activity in differentiated cells can be changed by cell fusion
329(1)
The differentiated state of a cell can change by transdifferentiation
330(2)
Embryonic stem cells can proliferate and differentiate into many cell types in culture
332(1)
Stem cells could be a key to regenerative medicine
332(8)
Organogenesis
The vertebrate limb
340(18)
The vertebrate limb develops from a limb bud
340(1)
Patterning of the limb involves positional information
341(1)
Genes expressed in the lateral plate mesoderm are involved in specifying the position and type of limb
341(2)
The apical ectodermal ridge is required for limb outgrowth
343(2)
The polarizing region specifies position along the limb's antero-posterior axis
345(2)
Box 9A Positional information and morphogen gradients
347(2)
Position along the proximo-distal axis may be specified by a timing mechanism
349(1)
The dorso-ventral axis is controlled by the ectoderm
350(1)
Different interpretations of the same positional signals give different limbs
351(1)
Homeobox genes also provide positional values for limb patterning
351(2)
Self-organization may be involved in the development of the limb bud
353(1)
Limb muscle is patterned by the connective tissue
354(1)
Box 9B Reaction-diffusion mechanisms
355(1)
The initial development of cartilage, muscles, and tendons is autonomous
356(1)
Joint formation involves secreted signals and mechanical stimuli
357(1)
Separation of the digits is the result of programmed cell death
357(1)
Insect wings, legs, and eyes
358(13)
Positional signals from the antero-posterior and dorso-ventral compartment boundaries pattern the wing imaginal disc
359(4)
Drosophila wing epidermal cells show planar cell polarity
363(1)
The leg disc is patterned in a similar manner to the wing disc, except for the proximo-distal axis
363(1)
Butterfly wing markings are organized by additional positional fields
364(2)
The segmental identity of imaginal discs is determined by the homeotic selector genes
366(1)
Patterning of the Drosophila eye involves cell-cell interactions
367(2)
Activation of the gene eyeless can initiate eye development
369(2)
Internal organs: blood vessels, lungs, kidneys, heart, and teeth
371(17)
The vascular system develops by vasculogenesis followed by angiogenesis
372(2)
The tracheae of Drosophila and the lungs of vertebrates branch using similar mechanisms
374(1)
The development of kidney tubules involves reciprocal induction by the ureteric bud and surrounding mesenchyme
375(2)
The development of the vertebrate heart involves specification of a mesodermal tube that is patterned along its long axis
377(2)
A homeobox gene code specifies tooth identity
379(9)
Development of the nervous system
Specification of cell identity in the nervous system
388(13)
Neurons in Drosophila arise from proneural clusters
388(2)
Asymmetric cell divisions and timed changes in gene expression are involved in the development of the Drosophila nervous system
390(2)
The neuroblasts of the sensory organs of adult Drosophila are already specified in the imaginal discs
392(1)
The vertebrate nervous system is derived from the neural plate
392(1)
Specification of vertebrate neuronal precursors involves lateral inhibition
393(1)
Neurons are formed in the proliferative zone of the neural tube and migrate outwards
394(2)
The pattern of differentiation of cells along the dorso-ventral axis of the spinal cord depends on ventral and dorsal signals
396(5)
Neuronal migration
401(8)
The growth cone controls the path taken by the growing axon
402(1)
Motor neurons from the spinal cord make muscle-specific connections
403(2)
Axons crossing the midline are both attracted and repelled
405(1)
Neurons from the retina make ordered connections on the tectum to form a retino-tectal map
406(3)
Synapse formation and refinement
409(13)
Synapse formation involves reciprocal interactions
411(1)
Many motor neurons die during normal development
412(1)
Neuronal cell death and survival involve both intrinsic and extrinsic factors
413(1)
The map from eye to brain is refined by neural activity
414(8)
Germ cells, fertilization, and sex
The development of germ cells
422(10)
Germ-cell fate can be specified by a distinct germplasm in the egg
422(3)
Pole plasm becomes localized at the posterior end of the Drosophila egg
425(1)
Germ cells migrate from their site of origin to the gonad
425(1)
Germ-cell differentiation involves a reduction in chromosome number
426(1)
Oocyte development can involve gene amplification and contributions from other cells
427(1)
Some genes controlling embryonic growth are imprinted
427(5)
Fertilization
432(5)
Fertilization involves cell-surface interactions between egg and sperm
432(2)
Changes in the egg membrane at fertilization block polyspermy
434(1)
A calcium wave initiated at fertilization results in egg activation
435(2)
Determination of the sexual phenotype
437(14)
The primary sex-determining gene in mammals is on the Y chromosome
437(1)
Mammalian sexual phenotype is regulated by gonadal hormones
438(1)
The primary sex-determining signal in Drosophila is the number of X chromosomes, and is cell autonomous
439(2)
Somatic sexual development in Caenorhabditis is determined by the number of X chromosomes
441(1)
Most flowering plants are hermaphrodites, but some produce unisexual flowers
442(1)
Germ-cell sex determination can depend both on cell signals and genetic constitution
443(1)
Various strategies are used for dosage compensation of X-linked genes
444(7)
Growth and post-embryonic development
Growth
451(14)
Tissues can grow by cell proliferation, cell enlargement, or accretion
452(1)
Cell proliferation can be controlled by an intrinsic program
452(2)
Organ size can be controlled by external signals and intrinsic growth programs
454(1)
Organ size may be determined by absolute dimension rather than cell number
455(2)
Growth can be dependent on growth hormones
457(1)
Growth of the long bones occurs in the growth plates
458(2)
Growth of vertebrate striated muscle is dependent on tension
460(1)
Cancer can result from mutations in genes that control cell multiplication and differentiation
461(2)
Hormones control many features of plant growth
463(2)
Molting and metamorphosis
465(4)
Arthropods have to molt in order to grow
465(1)
Metamorphosis is under environmental and hormonal control
466(3)
Aging and senescence
469(7)
Genes can alter the timing of senescence
470(1)
Cultured mammalian cells undergo cell senescence
471(5)
Regeneration
Limb and organ regeneration
476(12)
Vertebrate limb regeneration involves cell dedifferentiation and growth
477(3)
The limb blastema gives rise to structures with positional values distal to the site of amputation
480(2)
Retinoic acid can change proximo-distal positional values in regenerating limbs
482(1)
Insect limbs intercalate positional values by both proximo-distal and circumferential growth
483(3)
Heart regeneration in the zebrafish does not involve dedifferentiation
486(1)
The mammalian peripheral nervous system can regenerate
486(2)
Regeneration in Hydra
488(13)
Hydra grows continuously but regeneration does not require growth
488(1)
The head region of Hydra acts both as an organizing region and as an inhibitor of inappropriate head formation
489(1)
Head regeneration in Hydra can be accounted for in terms of two gradients
490(2)
Genes controlling regeneration in Hydra are similar to those expressed in animal embryos
492(8)
Evolution and development
The evolution of life histories has implications for development
500(1)
The evolutionary modification of embryonic development
501(16)
Embryonic structures have acquired new functions during evolution
502(2)
Limbs evolved from fins
504(4)
Vertebrate and insect wings make use of evolutionarily conserved developmental mechanisms
508(1)
Hox gene complexes have evolved through gene duplication
508(2)
Changes in Hox genes have generated the elaboration of vertebrate and arthropod body plans
510(3)
The position and number of paired appendages in insects is dependent on Hox gene expression
513(1)
The basic body plan of arthropods and vertebrates is similar, but the dorso-ventral axis is inverted
514(2)
Evolution of spatial pattern may be based on just a few genes
516(1)
Changes in the timing of developmental processes
517(3)
Changes in growth can alter the shapes of organisms
517(1)
The timing of developmental events has changed during evolution
517(3)
The evolution of development
520(1)
How multicellular organisms evolved from single-celled ancestors is still highly speculative
520

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