Policing in America

Dedication	p. iii
Acknowledgments	p. v
Preface	p. vii
The Police in American Society	p. 1
The Government Structure and Policing	p. 4
Constitutional Government	p. 5
Separation of Powers	p. 7
Principles of Federalism	p. 8
Police and the Law	p. 9
Police in the Criminal Justice System	p. 11
The Roles and Functions of Police in Modern Society	p. 15
Roles Performed by the Police	p. 17
Police Activities	p. 20
Types of Police Departments	p. 22
The Diversity of the Police Establishment	p. 24
Federal Law Enforcement Agencies	p. 25
Justice Department Agencies	p. 27
Treasury Department Agencies	p. 35
Miscellaneous Federal Law Enforcement Agencies	p. 40
State Law Enforcement Agencies	p. 41
State Police and Highway Patrols	p. 43
Limited-Purpose Law Enforcement Agencies	p. 44
Local Law Enforcement Agencies	p. 48
Summary	p. 51
References	p. 51
Historical Perspectives	p. 55
An Overview of Policing in Ancient Times	p. 56
The Birth of Civilization in Mesopotamia	p. 57
Civilization in Ancient Egypt	p. 58
The Rise of Greek City-States	p. 60
The Roman Empire's Contribution to Policing	p. 61
Police Development in England	p. 63
Medieval England	p. 64
Early English Law Enforcement	p. 65
The English Reformers	p. 67
American Policing in Retrospect	p. 74
Early American Policing	p. 75
Policing America: The Modern Era	p. 81
The Political Entrenchment Phase	p. 81
The Reform Efforts	p. 84
Professional Policing Comes to America	p. 88
Public and Community Relations Return to Policing	p. 91
Summary	p. 95
References	p. 95
Personnel Systems	p. 101
Toward a Theory of Police Selection	p. 103
Affirmative Action and Police Selection	p. 103
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act	p. 104
The Supreme Court: Lessening Title VII Requirements	p. 107
Minorities in Policing	p. 108
Women in Policing	p. 111
Recruiting Police Officers	p. 117
Establishing Minimum Selection Standards	p. 119
The Written Test	p. 132
The Oral Interview Board	p. 133
The Assessment Center	p. 134
Training Police Officers	p. 136
Basic Training	p. 137
Field Training Officer (FTO) Programs	p. 141
In-Service Training	p. 146
Police Officer Career Development	p. 148
Impact of Race and Gender on Police Officer Careers	p. 151
Summary	p. 152
References	p. 152
Organization and Management	p. 159
The Specifics of Police Administration: POSDCORB	p. 160
Levels of Administration and Supervision	p. 161
Principles of Organization and Police Administration	p. 164
Classical Organizational Principles	p. 164
Problems with Classical Organizational Principles and Traditional Police Administration	p. 171
Human Relations Organizational Theory	p. 172
The Hawthorne Studies	p. 173
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y	p. 173
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs	p. 175
Human Relations Theory and Police Administration	p. 176
Participative Management	p. 176
Systems Theory and Police Administration	p. 179
Open Systems versus Closed Systems	p. 179
Organizations as Systems	p. 182
Systems Theory and Policing	p. 183
Management by Objectives (MBO)	p. 184
Contingency Management	p. 186
Total Quality Management	p. 187
Summary	p. 191
References	p. 192
Police Operations	p. 195
Allocating Police Personnel	p. 197
Police Patrol	p. 197
Deploying Patrol Personnel	p. 200
Methods and Techniques of Patrol	p. 202
Foot Patrol	p. 203
Horse Patrol	p. 206
Bicycle Patrol	p. 207
Aircraft Patrol	p. 209
Watercraft Patrol	p. 210
Police Patrol Strategies	p. 211
Routine Preventive Patrol	p. 212
Maximizing Resources for Directed Patrol	p. 213
Directed Patrol	p. 216
Criminal Investigations	p. 222
Investigations: A Historical Perspective	p. 223
The Detective as Secretive Rogue	p. 223
The Detective as Inquisitor	p. 224
The Detective as Bureaucrat	p. 224
The Investigation Process	p. 226
Preliminary Investigations	p. 227
Follow-Up or Latent Investigations	p. 228
Research on the Effectiveness of Investigations	p. 229
The Traffic Function	p. 232
The Police and the Traffic Function	p. 232
Driving Under the Influence Enforcement	p. 236
Police Paramilitary Units	p. 238
Distinguishing Police Paramilitary Units from Regular Police	p. 238
Summary	p. 241
References	p. 242
Police Discretion	p. 247
The Nature of Police Discretion	p. 250
Administrative Discretion	p. 251
Enforcement Discretion	p. 254
The Police Decision-Making Process	p. 256
The Decision to Invoke the Criminal Justice Process	p. 256
Offender Variables	p. 256
Situation Variables	p. 259
System Variables	p. 260
Discretionary Situations in Law Enforcement	p. 261
Domestic Violence	p. 262
Vice Crimes	p. 266
Prostitution	p. 269
Pornography	p. 271
Gambling	p. 273
The Investigation of Vice	p. 274
Policing Hate Crimes	p. 276
Disenfranchised Populations	p. 279
Controlling Police Discretion	p. 282
Understanding the Need for Control Mechanisms	p. 283
Internal Control Mechanisms	p. 284
External Control Mechanisms	p. 287
Control by the Citizens	p. 287
Legislative Control	p. 289
Control by the Courts	p. 292
Summary	p. 292
References	p. 293
Police Use of Force	p. 299
The Meaning of Excessive Force	p. 302
Tennessee v. Garner	p. 303
Patterns of Police Use of Force	p. 304
Controlling Police Discretion in Use of Force Situations	p. 305
Use of Force Continuum	p. 306
Use of Force Policy Considerations	p. 308
Use of Force by Off-Duty Police Officers	p. 312
Early Warning Systems to Identify Problem Officers	p. 313
Less-Than-Lethal Force	p. 314
Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) Spray	p. 315
Net-Widening and Use of Force	p. 317
Assaults Against Police Officers	p. 319
Suicide by Cop	p. 321
Summary	p. 323
References	p. 324
Police Culture and Behavior	p. 327
The Psychological Perspective	p. 328
The Sociological Perspective	p. 330
Types of Police Officers	p. 331
The Anthropological Perspective	p. 334
The Police Subculture	p. 335
The Law and Police Culture	p. 336
The Police World View	p. 337
Police Ethos	p. 339
Police Themes	p. 343
Police Postulates	p. 345
Subculture of Violence	p. 347
Police Stress	p. 349
Sources of Police Stress	p. 351
Effects of Police Stress	p. 354
Police Suicide	p. 355
Alcoholism and Drug Abuse	p. 358
Mortality and Health Problems	p. 359
Reducing Police Stress	p. 360
Summary	p. 361
References	p. 363
Ethics and Deviance	p. 369
Sources of Ethics	p. 372
Justice	p. 372
Law	p. 373
Agency Policy	p. 375
Professional Code of Ethics	p. 376
Social Norms and Personal Values	p. 378
A Conflict of Values	p. 380
Crime, Corruption, Abuse, and Illegal Behavior	p. 380
Police Crime	p. 381
Abuse of Authority	p. 382
Occupational Deviance	p. 383
Corruption	p. 384
Bribery	p. 385
Extortion	p. 385
Narcotics Violations	p. 386
The Scope and Forms Police Corruption	p. 390
Deviant Behavior	p. 394
Alcohol and Other Drugs of Abuse	p. 395
Sexual Misconduct	p. 397
Police Sexual Violence	p. 402
Driving While Black	p. 402
Gratuities	p. 405
Goldbricking versus Quotas	p. 407
Summary	p. 409
References	p. 410
Civil Liability	p. 415
The Incidence of Civil Suits	p. 416
The Cost of Civil Liability	p. 418
Litigants in Liability Cases	p. 420
Police Civil Liability and Tort Law	p. 421
Strict Tort Liability	p. 422
Intentional Torts	p. 422
Wrongful Death	p. 423
Assault and Battery	p. 424
False Arrest and Imprisonment	p. 425
Negligence	p. 427
Legal Duty	p. 428
Breach of Duty	p. 429
Proximate Cause	p. 429
Damage or Injury	p. 430
Common Claims of Police Negligence	p. 431
Negligent Operation of Emergency Vehicles	p. 431
Negligent Failure to Protect	p. 431
Negligent Failure to Arrest	p. 431
Negligent Failure to Render Assistance	p. 432
Negligent Selection, Hiring and Retention	p. 432
Negligent Police Supervision and Direction	p. 432
Negligent Entrustment and Assignment	p. 433
Negligent Failure to Discipline and Investigate	p. 433
Defenses to Claims of Police Negligence	p. 433
Contributory Negligence	p. 433
Comparative Negligence	p. 434
Assumption of Risk	p. 434
Police Liability Under Federal Law	p. 435
Acting Under Color of State Law	p. 436
Violation of a Constitutional Right	p. 437
Defenses to Section 1983 Lawsuits	p. 440
Absolute Immunity	p. 440
Qualified Immunity	p. 440
Probable Cause	p. 441
Good Faith	p. 441
Preventing Liability	p. 442
Summary	p. 443
References	p. 443
The Police in the Modern Community	p. 445
An Overview of Public Perceptions of the Police	p. 448
Public Attitudes Toward the Police	p. 450
Individual-Level Variables	p. 450
Police-Community Relations	p. 453
Toward a Theory of Police-Community Relations	p. 453
Crime Prevention	p. 457
The Theory of Crime Prevention	p. 458
Primary Crime Prevention Techniques and Programs	p. 460
Juvenile Curfews	p. 470
Private Security	p. 471
Community Policing	p. 473
The Philosophical Dimension	p. 476
The Strategic Dimension	p. 478
The Programmatic Dimension	p. 481
Management Issues	p. 484
Operational Examples	p. 486
Summary	p. 487
References	p. 488
Policing the Drug Problem	p. 493
The Nature and Extent of the Drug Problem	p. 494
Drugs and Crime	p. 496
The Nation's Drug Strategy	p. 499
Interdiction	p. 499
Drug Prevention Programs	p. 503
Drug Treatment	p. 507
The Illegal Drug Delivery System	p. 510
Criminal Organizations	p. 510
Drug Enforcement Techniques and Programs	p. 518
Attacking High-Level Distributors	p. 519
Drug Enforcement at the Retail Level	p. 523
Community Policing and Drugs	p. 534
Summary	p. 539
References	p. 540
The Future of Policing	p. 545
Predictions for the Future	p. 547
Police Roles and Functions	p. 548
Political and Legal Change	p. 551
Technology and the Police	p. 552
Managing Information and Communication with Enhanced Technology	p. 553
Communications	p. 553
Computers, Communication, and Information	p. 554
Police Information Systems	p. 559
Technology for Field Operations	p. 562
Automated Traffic Enforcement	p. 562
Video and Digital Recording	p. 563
Investigation and Crime Scene Technology	p. 565
Summary	p. 567
References	p. 567
Glossary	p. 571
Name Index	p. 585
Subject Index	p. 597
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