9781583212561

List of Tables	p. xi
List of Figures	p. xiii
Foreword	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Executive Summary	p. xix
Introduction	p. 1
Background	p. 1
Objectives and Scope	p. 2
Organization of the Report	p. 3
Fire Flow Practices	p. 5
Fire Flow Requirements	p. 6
United States	p. 6
Canada	p. 11
Europe and South Africa	p. 13
Legality and Liability	p. 18
United States	p. 18
Canada	p. 19
Europe and South Africa	p. 19
Design Considerations	p. 20
Water Mains	p. 21
Valves and Hydrants	p. 23
Alternate Water Sources for Fire Protection	p. 25
United States	p. 25
Canada	p. 26
Europe and South Africa	p. 26
Distribution System Water Quality Regulations	p. 27
United States	p. 27
Europe and South Africa	p. 28
Reliability	p. 29
United States	p. 30
Methods of Reducing Fire Flow Requirements	p. 35
Fire Extinguishment	p. 35
Flaming Combustion and the Fire Tetrahedron	p. 35
Surface Combustion and the Fire Triangle	p. 36
Basic Methods of Extinguishment	p. 36
Fire Development	p. 38
Incipient Fires	p. 39
Unventilated Fires	p. 39
Ventilated Fires	p. 40
Other Factors	p. 40
Fire Streams	p. 42
Attack Lines	p. 42
Master Streams	p. 43
Minimum Acceptable Fire Stream	p. 43
Opportunities for Reducing Flow in Fire Streams	p. 46
Current Fire Department Response Strategies	p. 49
Offensive/Interior Attack	p. 49
Defensive/Exterior Attack	p. 50
Sprinkler Support	p. 51
Fire Flow Determination	p. 51
Current Criteria--Grading Schedules	p. 51
Current NFPA Standards--Rural and Suburban Areas	p. 52
Current Standards--Sprinklered Occupancies	p. 54
Current Developments in Fire Codes	p. 57
Automatic Suppression Technologies	p. 57
Water-Based and Foam Systems	p. 58
Continuing Sprinkler Technology Developments	p. 62
Carbon Dioxide	p. 64
Dry Chemical	p. 65
Halons	p. 65
Alternate "Clean" Agents	p. 66
Water Mist Technology	p. 66
Water Delivery	p. 69
System Supplied	p. 69
Non-system Supplied	p. 70
Surface Water Sources and Private Water Tanks	p. 70
Use of Nonpotable Water Delivery Systems for Fire Protection	p. 71
Summary	p. 72
Options	p. 72
Wide-scale Installation of Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems	p. 73
Wide-scale Installation of Automatic Water Mist Suppression Systems	p. 75
Enhanced Use of Non-water Based Fire Suppression Systems	p. 76
Expanded Use of Additives (Class A Foams) in Manual Fire-Fighting Applications	p. 77
Advance and Expand the Use of Small Droplet Technologies to Manual Fire-Fighting Applications	p. 79
Utilize Nonpotable Water Supply for Fire Protection Purposes	p. 80
Increase Use of Water Tankers in Fire Response Tactics	p. 80
Summary of Options for Achieving Fire Flow Reductions	p. 82
Applications of Alternative Fire Suppression Technologies	p. 86
Evaluating the Impacts of Fire Flow	p. 89
Introduction	p. 89
Methodology	p. 89
Overview	p. 89
EPANET Distribution System Model	p. 91
Costing Model	p. 93
Storage Age Model	p. 96
Application to Hypothetical Network	p. 96
Assessment of Example Results	p. 100
Generalized Analysis of Distribution Systems	p. 101
Simplified Example	p. 101
Generalized Analysis	p. 103
Analysis of Distribution System Storage	p. 108
Summary and Conclusions	p. 112
Case Studies	p. 115
Introduction	p. 115
Cincinnati Water Works, Ohio	p. 115
Description of System	p. 115
CWW Case Study Area	p. 118
Methodology	p. 119
CWW Case Study Results	p. 122
DEL-CO Water System, Ohio	p. 124
Description of System	p. 124
DEL-CO Network Model	p. 125
Analysis of DEL-CO System	p. 127
Summary and Conclusions	p. 131
The Role of Dual Distribution Systems in Providing Water for Fire Protection	p. 133
Introduction	p. 133
Dual Systems	p. 134
Planning for Dual Systems	p. 135
Dual Systems for New Communities	p. 136
Quality of the Reclaimed Water	p. 137
Reliability of Reclaimed Water Systems	p. 139
Systems with Reclaimed Waters Suitable for Fire Protection	p. 140
St. Petersburg, Florida	p. 140
San Francisco, California	p. 141
Rouse Hill, Australia	p. 142
Irvine Ranch Water District, Irvine, California	p. 142
Conclusion	p. 143
Findings and Recommendations	p. 145
Findings	p. 145
Fire Flow Requirements	p. 145
Design Considerations	p. 145
Fire Suppression Technologies	p. 145
Generalized Network Modeling	p. 146
Test Case Model Development	p. 147
Dual Water Systems	p. 148
Recommendations	p. 149
Fire Flow Requirements	p. 149
Design Considerations	p. 150
Fire Suppression Technologies	p. 150
Generalized Network Modeling	p. 151
Dual Water Systems	p. 151
Future Research Needs	p. 151
Summary of Fire Flow Requirements	p. 153
References	p. 163
List of Abbreviations and Symbols	p. 173
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Impacts of Fire Flow on Distribution Systems

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