This book provides researchers, clinicians, and students with a useful overview of the key issues involved in measuring client change within clinical practice. It reviews the history, conceptual foundations, and current status of trait- and state-based assessment models and approaches, exploring their strengths and limitations for measuring change across therapy sessions. Particular attention is given to the critical challenges of interpreting and using measurement and assessment data that can enable the provision of better clinical care and treatment evaluation. A series of exercises guides the reader to gather information about particular tests and evaluate their suitability for intended testing purposes.

Scott T. Meier is Professor and Chair of the Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.

Introduction and Rationale	p. 1
Contemporary Psychological Testing	p. 1
Contemporary Psychotherapy Research and Practice	p. 2
The Implications of Research Stuckness for Clinical Practice	p. 4
Summary and Conclusions	p. 7
A History of Traits	p. 9
The Seeds of Conflict	p. 9
The Desire to Be Scientific	p. 10
The Model of Physiology	p. 10
Biology and Individual Differences	p. 12
The Desire to Be Relevant	p. 14
The Need for Classification	p. 14
The Consequences of the Adoption of a Trait-Based Measurement Paradigm	p. 16
Loss of Experimental Methods Inhibits Recognition of Method Variance	p. 17
The Gain of Traits and Loss of Situations	p. 19
Handling Error with Classical Test Theory	p. 20
Statistics Related to Measurement	p. 21
Assessment as a Complement to Measurement	p. 25
Deemphasizing Measurement Theory	p. 27
Loss of Precision	p. 30
The Wisdom and Tyranny of Tradition	p. 35
The Success and Failure of the Market	p. 36
Summary and Implications	p. 38
Reliability, Validity, and Systematic Errors	p. 42
Introduction	p. 42
Thinking about Reliability and Validity	p. 43
Types of Validity	p. 43
Constructs, Theories, and Valid Measurement	p. 46
Construct Explication	p. 47
Multitrait-Multimethod Matrices: Investigating the Effects of Method Variance on Validity	p. 48
Campbell and Fiske	p. 49
Criteria for Construct Validity	p. 50
An MTMM Example	p. 51
Problems with Campbell and Fiske's Approach	p. 56
The Factor Analytic Approach to Construct Validity	p. 57
History of Self-Report and Interview Errors	p. 60
Self-Reports	p. 61
Interviews and Observational Methods	p. 63
Measurement Error	p. 64
Systematic Errors Associated with Self-Reports	p. 65
Dissimulation and Malingering	p. 65
Systematic Errors Associated with Ratings by Others	p. 69
Halo Errors	p. 70
Leniency and Criticalness Errors	p. 71
Hypothesis Confirmation Errors	p. 72
Causes of Inconsistency	p. 74
Cognitive Influences	p. 75
Item Comprehension Problems	p. 76
Test Cues	p. 77
Low Cognitive Ability	p. 80
Affective and Motivational Influences	p. 81
Test Anxiety	p. 82
Negative Emotional States	p. 83
Environmental and Cultural Influences	p. 84
Reactivity	p. 84
Stereotype Threat	p. 85
Summary and Implications	p. 86
States, Traits, and Validity	p. 89
Introduction	p. 89
History	p. 90
The Controversy of Mischel and Peterson: The Benefits of Conflict	p. 93
The Rejection of Traits: Behavioral Assessment	p. 94
Reinforcing the Trait Argument	p. 96
Person-Environment Interactions	p. 98
Aptitude-by-Treatment Interactions	p. 101
Environmental Assessment	p. 103
Moderators of Cross-Situational Consistency	p. 105
Summary and Integration	p. 106
Context Effects and Validity
Introduction	p. 110
Understanding Inconsistency: Clues from Psychophysics Measurement	p. 111
The Limitations of Psychophysical Measurement	p. 112
Conclusions and Implications from Psychophysical Research	p. 115
Improving the Principles of Construct Explication	p. 116
Test Purpose	p. 117
Test Content	p. 119
Test Context	p. 122
Shared Contexts and Method Variance	p. 124
The Context of Positive and Negative Item Wording	p. 125
The Context of Item-Instruction Presentation	p. 126
The Context of Response Format	p. 126
Context and Test Instructions	p. 128
Context and Item Content	p. 130
Shared Contexts and Systematic Errors	p. 131
Shared Contexts and Social Roles	p. 134
Conversational Rules	p. 134
Narrative Therapy	p. 136
Shared Role Contexts	p. 137
Applications	p. 140
Recommendations Related to Test Purpose	p. 141
Recommendations Related to Test Content	p. 145
Recommendations Related to Test Contexts	p. 147
Provide Testing Contexts That Help Test Takers Remember Better	p. 147
Summary and Implications	p. 155
Nomothetic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing Outcomes	p. 159
History and Background	p. 159
Examples of Nomothetic Measures	p. 161
Beck Depression Inventory	p. 161
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory	p. 161
Global Assessment of Functioning	p. 162
Outcome Questionnaire	p. 162
Reliability of Nomothetic Measures	p. 163
Validity of Nomothetic Measures	p. 164
Change-Sensitive Tests	p. 165
Using Outcome Data for Clinical Feedback	p. 169
Use Measures with a Strong Theoretical Basis	p. 174
Use Brief Measures	p. 177
Applications	p. 177
Creating Change-Sensitive Measures	p. 177
Psychometric Properties of Aggregate Scales	p. 186
Using Change-Sensitive Tests in Program Evaluations	p. 189
An Evidence-Based Approach to Supervision	p. 192
Summary and Integration	p. 196
Idiographic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing Outcomes	p. 198
History and Background	p. 198
Reliability of Idiographic Measures	p. 199
Validity of Idiographic Measures	p. 200
Behavioral Assessment	p. 202
Self- and Other Monitoring	p. 206
The Use of Natural Language	p. 208
Narrative Therapy	p. 208
Pennebaker's Word Use Approach	p. 212
Idiographically Based Feedback Procedures	p. 214
Applications	p. 216
Begin with the Case Conceptualization	p. 216
Explicate Constructs	p. 218
Measure Behaviors	p. 219
Collect as Much Data as Possible	p. 220
Analyze Idiographic Data	p. 220
Consider Progress Notes for Process and Outcome Data	p. 223
Summary and Implications	p. 226
Summary, Integration, and Future Directions	p. 229
Major Ideas	p. 229
Initial Findings and Future Research	p. 234
Nomothetic Outcome Measures	p. 234
Idiographic Outcome Measures	p. 235
Context Effects	p. 236
Innovative Research Methods	p. 237
Conclusion	p. 239
References	p. 243
Author Index	p. 283
Subject Index	p. 295
About the Author	p. 303
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

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Measuring Change in Counseling and Psychotherapy

9781593857202

1593857209

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