Preface | p. xvii |
To the Instructor | p. xxi |
Introduction to Instructional Design | p. 2 |
The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model for Designing Instruction | p. 2 |
Components of the Systems Approach Model | p. 6 |
Assess Needs to Identify Goal(s) | p. 6 |
Conduct Instructional Analysis | p. 6 |
Analyze Learners and Contexts | p. 7 |
Write Performance Objectives | p. 7 |
Develop Assessment Instruments | p. 7 |
Develop Instructional Strategy | p. 7 |
Develop and Select Instructional Materials | p. 7 |
Design and Conduct the Formative Evaluation of Instruction | p. 8 |
Revise Instruction | p. 8 |
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation | p. 8 |
Using the Systems Approach Model | p. 9 |
What Are the Basic Components of Systematically Designed Instruction? | p. 9 |
For Which Instructional Delivery System Is the Systems Approach Appropriate? | p. 10 |
Does the Use of the Systems Approach Imply that All Instruction Will Be Individualized? | p. 10 |
Why Use the Systems Approach? | p. 11 |
Who Should Use the Systems Approach? | p. 12 |
Assessing Needs to Identify Instructional Goal(s) | p. 16 |
Concepts | p. 19 |
Performance Analysis | p. 19 |
Clarifying Instructional Goals | p. 22 |
Learners, Context, and Tools | p. 22 |
Criteria for Establishing Instructional Goals | p. 23 |
Examples | p. 25 |
Leading Group Discussions | p. 25 |
Needs Assessment | p. 25 |
Clarifying the Instructional Goal | p. 25 |
Criteria for Establishing Instructional Goals | p. 26 |
Providing Customer Service | p. 27 |
Conducting a Goal Analysis | p. 36 |
Concepts | p. 38 |
Verbal Information | p. 39 |
Intellectual Skills | p. 39 |
Psychomotor Skills | p. 40 |
Attitudes | p. 40 |
Goal Analysis Procedures | p. 42 |
Analysis of Substeps | p. 45 |
More Suggestions for Identifying Steps within a Goal | p. 46 |
Examples | p. 47 |
Intellectual Skills Goals | p. 48 |
Psychomotor Skills Goals | p. 49 |
Attitudinal Goals | p. 49 |
Verbal Information Goals | p. 51 |
Typical First Approach to Goal Analysis | p. 51 |
Identifying Subordinate Skills and Entry Behaviors | p. 58 |
Concepts | p. 60 |
Hierarchical Approach | p. 60 |
Cluster Analysis | p. 65 |
Subordinate Skills Analysis Techniques for Attitude Goals | p. 66 |
Combining Instructional Analysis Techniques | p. 67 |
Instructional Analysis Diagrams | p. 68 |
Entry Behaviors | p. 70 |
The Tentativeness of Entry Behaviors | p. 73 |
Examples | p. 74 |
Hierarchical Analysis of an Intellectual Skill | p. 74 |
Topic | p. 74 |
Instructional Goal | p. 74 |
Cluster Analysis for Verbal Information Subordinate Skills | p. 76 |
Topic | p. 76 |
Subordinate Skills | p. 76 |
Subordinate Skills Analysis of an Additional Goal That Requires Both Intellectual Skills and Verbal Information | p. 79 |
Topic | p. 79 |
Instructional Goal | p. 79 |
Analysis of a Psychomotor Skill | p. 79 |
Topic | p. 79 |
Instructional Goal | p. 79 |
Subordinate Skills Analysis for an Attitudinal Goal | p. 82 |
Topic | p. 83 |
Instructional Goal | p. 83 |
Identification of Entry Behaviors | p. 84 |
Analyzing Learners and Contexts | p. 94 |
Concepts | p. 96 |
Learner Analysis | p. 96 |
Entry Behaviors | p. 97 |
Prior Knowledge of Topic Area | p. 97 |
Attitudes Toward Content and Potential Delivery System | p. 97 |
Academic Motivation (ARCS) | p. 97 |
Educational and Ability Levels | p. 98 |
General Learning Preferences | p. 98 |
Attitudes Toward Training Organization | p. 98 |
Group Characteristics | p. 98 |
Collecting Data for Learner Analysis | p. 99 |
Output | p. 99 |
Context Analysis of Performance Setting | p. 99 |
Managerial or Supervisor Support | p. 99 |
Physical Aspects of the Site | p. 99 |
Social Aspects of the Site | p. 100 |
Relevance of Skills to Workplace | p. 100 |
Collecting Data for Context Analysis in the Performance Setting | p. 100 |
Output | p. 100 |
Context Analysis of Learning Environment | p. 100 |
Compatibility of Site with Instructional Requirements | p. 101 |
Adaptability of Site to Simulate Workplace | p. 101 |
Adaptability for Delivery Approaches | p. 101 |
Learning-Site Constraints Affecting Design and Delivery | p. 101 |
Collecting Data for Context Analysis in the Learning Environment | p. 102 |
Output | p. 102 |
Public School Contexts | p. 102 |
Evaluation and Revision of the Instructional Analysis | p. 103 |
Examples | p. 104 |
Learner Analysis | p. 104 |
Performance Context Analysis | p. 106 |
Learning Context Analysis | p. 108 |
Writing Performance Objectives | p. 120 |
Concepts | p. 123 |
Performance Objective | p. 123 |
Components of an Objective | p. 124 |
Derivation of Behaviors | p. 125 |
Derivation of Conditions | p. 126 |
Derivation of Criteria | p. 128 |
Process for Writing Objectives | p. 129 |
Evaluation of Objectives | p. 130 |
The Function of Objectives | p. 131 |
Examples | p. 132 |
Verbal Information and Intellectual Skills | p. 132 |
Verbal Information | p. 134 |
Intellectual Skills | p. 134 |
Psychomotor Skills | p. 136 |
Attitudes | p. 136 |
Developing Assessment Instruments | p. 144 |
Concepts | p. 146 |
Four Types of Criterion-Referenced Tests and Their Uses | p. 146 |
Entry Behaviors Test | p. 147 |
Pretest | p. 147 |
Practice Tests | p. 148 |
Posttests | p. 148 |
Designing a Test | p. 149 |
Determining Mastery Levels | p. 150 |
Writing Test Items | p. 151 |
Goal-Centered Criteria | p. 151 |
Learner-Centered Criteria | p. 152 |
Context-Centered Criteria | p. 153 |
Assessment-Centered Criteria | p. 153 |
Setting Mastery Criteria | p. 153 |
Types of Items | p. 154 |
Sequencing Items | p. 155 |
Writing Directions | p. 156 |
Evaluating Tests and Test Items | p. 156 |
Developing Instruments to Measure Performances, Products, and Attitudes | p. 157 |
Writing Directions | p. 158 |
Developing the Instrument | p. 158 |
Identify, Paraphrase, and Sequence Elements | p. 158 |
Developing the Response Format | p. 159 |
Checklist | p. 159 |
Rating Scale | p. 160 |
Frequency Count | p. 161 |
Scoring Procedure | p. 161 |
Using Portfolio Assessments | p. 162 |
Evaluating Congruence in the Design Process | p. 163 |
Examples | p. 165 |
Test Items for Verbal Information and Intellectual Skills | p. 165 |
A Checklist for Evaluating Motor Skills | p. 168 |
Instrument for Evaluating Behaviors Related to Attitudes | p. 170 |
Materials for Evaluating the Design | p. 171 |
Developing an Instructional Strategy | p. 182 |
Concepts | p. 184 |
Selection of Delivery System | p. 185 |
Instructional Strategies | p. 186 |
Content Sequence and Clustering | p. 187 |
Content Sequence | p. 187 |
Clustering Instruction | p. 188 |
Learning Components of Instructional Strategies | p. 189 |
Preinstructional Activities | p. 190 |
Motivating Learners | p. 190 |
Informing the Learner of the Objectives | p. 192 |
Informing the Learner of the Prerequisite Skills | p. 192 |
Content Presentation and Examples | p. 193 |
Learner Participation | p. 193 |
Assessment | p. 194 |
Follow-Through Activities | p. 195 |
Memory Skills | p. 195 |
Transfer of Learning | p. 195 |
Detailed Outline of Learning Components | p. 196 |
Learning Components for Learners of Different Maturity and Ability Levels | p. 197 |
Learning Components for Various Learning Outcomes | p. 198 |
Intellectual Skills | p. 198 |
Verbal Information | p. 201 |
Motor Skills | p. 202 |
Attitudes | p. 203 |
Student Groupings | p. 205 |
Selection of Media and Delivery Systems | p. 205 |
Media Selection for Domains of Learning | p. 206 |
Media Selection for Certain Task Requirements Found in Objectives | p. 207 |
Practical Considerations in Choosing Media and Delivery Systems | p. 207 |
Alternative Views About Developing an Instructional Strategy | p. 209 |
Developing an Instructional Strategy | p. 209 |
Evaluating an Instructional Strategy | p. 212 |
Examples | p. 214 |
Sequence and Cluster Objectives | p. 214 |
Plan Preinstructional, Assessment, and Follow-Through Activities | p. 215 |
Plan Content Presentation and Student Participation | p. 216 |
Allocate Activities to Sessions | p. 221 |
Consolidate Media Selection and Confirm or Select Delivery System | p. 221 |
Developing Instructional Materials | p. 240 |
Concepts | p. 242 |
The Delivery System and Media Selections | p. 242 |
Availability of Existing Instructional Materials | p. 242 |
Production and Implementation Constraints | p. 243 |
Amount of Instructor Facilitation | p. 243 |
Components of an Instructional Package | p. 245 |
Instructional Materials | p. 245 |
Assessments | p. 245 |
Course Management Information | p. 245 |
Selecting Existing Instructional Materials | p. 246 |
Goal-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials | p. 246 |
Learner-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials | p. 246 |
Context-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials | p. 246 |
Learning-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials | p. 247 |
The Designer's Role in Material Development and Instructional Delivery | p. 247 |
When the Designer Is Also the Materials Developer and the Instructor | p. 247 |
When the Designer Is Not the Instructor | p. 250 |
Developing Instructional Materials for Formative Evaluation | p. 251 |
Rough Draft Materials | p. 251 |
Rapid Prototyping | p. 252 |
Materials Development Tools and Resources | p. 253 |
Beginning the Development Process | p. 254 |
Steps in the Development of Instruction | p. 254 |
Examples | p. 255 |
Preinstructional Activities | p. 257 |
Mediation of Preinstructional Activities | p. 257 |
Motivation Materials and Session Objectives | p. 257 |
Pretest | p. 258 |
Mediation of Pretest | p. 259 |
Content Presentation | p. 260 |
Mediation of Instruction | p. 260 |
Instruction | p. 260 |
Learner Participation | p. 260 |
Mediation of Learner Participation and Feedback | p. 260 |
Learner Participation Script | p. 265 |
Feedback | p. 265 |
Designing and Conducting Formative Evaluations | p. 282 |
Concepts | p. 284 |
Role of Subject-Matter, Learning, and Learner Specialists in Formative Evaluation | p. 285 |
One-to-One Evaluation with Learners | p. 286 |
Criteria | p. 286 |
Selecting Learners | p. 286 |
Data Collection | p. 287 |
Procedures | p. 288 |
Assessments and Questionnaires | p. 289 |
Learning Time | p. 290 |
Data Interpretation | p. 291 |
Outcomes | p. 291 |
Small-Group Evaluation | p. 291 |
Criteria and Data | p. 291 |
Selecting Learners | p. 292 |
Procedures | p. 292 |
Assessments and Questionnaires | p. 293 |
Data Summary and Analysis | p. 293 |
Outcomes | p. 293 |
Field Trial | p. 294 |
Location of Evaluation | p. 294 |
Criteria and Data | p. 294 |
Selecting Learners | p. 294 |
Procedure for Conducting Field Trial | p. 295 |
Data Summary and Interpretation | p. 295 |
Outcomes | p. 295 |
Formative Evaluation in the Performance Context | p. 295 |
Criteria and Data | p. 296 |
Selecting Respondents | p. 297 |
Procedure | p. 297 |
Outcomes | p. 297 |
Collecting Data on Reactions to Instruction | p. 297 |
Formative Evaluation of Selected Materials | p. 300 |
Formative Evaluation of Instructor-Led Instruction | p. 301 |
Data Collection for Selected Materials and Instructor-Led Instruction | p. 302 |
Concerns Influencing Formative Evaluation | p. 302 |
Context Concerns | p. 302 |
Concerns about Learners | p. 303 |
Concerns about Formative Evaluation Outcomes | p. 304 |
Concerns with Implementing Formative Evaluation | p. 304 |
Problem Solving During Instructional Design | p. 305 |
Examples | p. 305 |
Formative Evaluation Activities | p. 305 |
One-to-One Evaluation | p. 305 |
Small-Group Evaluation | p. 307 |
Field Trial | p. 309 |
Formative Evaluation of Selected Materials and Instructor-Led Instruction | p. 309 |
Instruments for Assessing Learners' Attitudes about Instruction | p. 310 |
Revising Instructional Materials | p. 322 |
Concepts | p. 324 |
Analyzing Data from One-to-One Trials | p. 324 |
Analyzing Data from Small-Group and Field Trials | p. 325 |
Group's Item-by-Objective Performance | p. 326 |
Learners' Item-by-Objective Performance | p. 327 |
Learners' Performance Across Tests | p. 327 |
Graphing Learners' Performances | p. 329 |
Other Types of Data | p. 330 |
Sequence for Examining Data | p. 330 |
Entry Behaviors | p. 330 |
Pretests and Posttests | p. 330 |
Instructional Strategy | p. 331 |
Learning Time | p. 331 |
Instructional Procedures | p. 331 |
Revision Process | p. 332 |
Revising Selected Materials and Instructor-Led Instruction | p. 332 |
Examples | p. 333 |
Summarizing Item-by-Objective Data Across Tests | p. 334 |
Summarizing and Analyzing Data Across Tests | p. 336 |
Summarizing Attitudinal Data | p. 337 |
Determining How to Revise Instruction | p. 340 |
Designing and Conducting Summative Evaluations | p. 348 |
Concepts | p. 350 |
Expert Judgment Phase of Summative Evaluation | p. 352 |
Congruence Analysis | p. 352 |
Organization's Needs | p. 352 |
Resources | p. 353 |
Content Analysis | p. 353 |
Design Analysis | p. 354 |
Utility and Feasibility Analysis | p. 354 |
Current User Analysis | p. 354 |
Field-Trial Phase of Summative Evaluation | p. 356 |
Outcomes Analysis | p. 356 |
Planning | p. 356 |
Preparing | p. 358 |
Implementing/Collecting Data | p. 358 |
Summarizing and Analyzing Data | p. 359 |
Reporting Results | p. 359 |
Comparison of Formative and Summative Evaluation | p. 359 |
Examples | p. 361 |
Data Summary Form for the Congruence Analysis | p. 361 |
Checklist for Content Analysis: Evaluating the Completeness and Accuracy of Materials | p. 361 |
Checklists for Design Analysis: Evaluating the Learning and Instructional Strategies in Materials | p. 362 |
Motivation | p. 364 |
Types of Learning | p. 365 |
Instructional Strategies | p. 367 |
Form for Utility and Feasibility Analysis: Expert Judgment | p. 368 |
Form for Current Users' Analysis | p. 368 |
Glossary of Terms | p. 373 |
Appendixes | p. 377 |
Description of Problem (Need), Purpose of Instruction, Target Group, and Delivery System | p. 378 |
Goal Analysis of the Instructional Goal on Story Writing | p. 380 |
Hierarchical Analysis of Declarative Sentence Portion of Story-Writing Goal with Entry Behavior Lines | p. 381 |
Design Evaluation Chart Containing Subskills, Performance Objectives, and Parallel Test Items | p. 382 |
Instructional Strategy for Objective Sequence and Clusters, Preinstructional Activities, and Assessment Activities | p. 385 |
Instructional Strategy for the Content Presentation and Student Participation Components and the Lesson Time Allocation Based on the Strategy | p. 387 |
Session 1: Motivational Materials, Unit Objectives, and Assessment of Entry Behaviors | p. 390 |
Session 2: Pretest Story and Rubric to Evaluate Stories | p. 392 |
Session 3: Pretest and Instruction in Subordinate Skills 5.6 through 5.11 | p. 394 |
Group's and Individuals' Achievement of Objectives and Attitudes About Instruction | p. 398 |
Materials Revision Analysis Form | p. 406 |
Index | p. 409 |
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