Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

by Pagano, Robert R.

• ISBN13: 9780534617677
• ISBN10: 0534617670
• Additional ISBN(s): 9780495096382
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-07-31
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

PART I: OVERVIEW. 1. Statistics and Scientific Method. PART II: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS. 2. Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts. 3. Frequency Distributions. 4. Measures of Central Tendency and Variability. 5. The Normal Curve and Standard Scores. 6. Correlation. 7. Linear Regression. PART III: INFERENTIAL STATISITCS. 8. Random Sampling and Probability. 9. Binomial Distribution. 10. Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test. 11. Power. 12. Sampling Distributions, Sampling Distribution of the Mean, the Normal Deviate (z) Test. 13. Student's t-Test for Single Samples. 14. Student's t-Test for Correlated and Independent Groups. 15. Introduction to Analysis of Variance. 16. Multiple Comparisons. 17. Introduction to Two-Way Analysis of Variance. 18. Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests. 19. Review of Inferential Statistics. Appendix A: Review of Prerequisite Mathematics. Appendix B: Equations. Appendix C: Answers to Questions and Problems. Appendix D: Tables.

Table of Contents

part one OVERVIEW	1	(21)
Statistics and Scientific Method	3	(18)
Introduction	3	(1)
Methods of Knowing	4	(2)
Definitions	6	(3)
An Overall Example: Mode of Presentation and Retention	7	(2)
Scientific Research and Statistics	9	(1)
Random Sampling	9	(1)
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics	10	(1)
Using Computers in Statistics	10	(1)
Statistics and the ``Real World''	11	(1)
What is the Truth? Data, Data, Where Are the Data?	12	(1)
What is the Truth? Authorities Are Nice, But . . .	13	(1)
What is the Truth? Data, Data, What Are the Data?	14	(1)
What is the Truth? Data, Data, What Are the Data?	15	(2)
Summary	17	(1)
Important Terms	17	(1)
Questions and Problems	17	(3)
Web Connection	20	(1)
part two DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS	21	(138)
Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts	23	(15)
Study Hints for the Student	23	(1)
Mathematical Notation	24	(1)
Summation	25	(2)
Measurement Scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales	27	(4)
Nominal Scales	27	(1)
Ordinal Scales	28	(1)
Interval Scales	29	(1)
Ratio Scales	29	(2)
Measurement Scales in the Behavioral Sciences	31	(1)
Continuous and Discrete Variables	31	(4)
Real Limits of a Continuous Variable	32	(1)
Significant Figures	33	(1)
Rounding	34	(1)
Summary	35	(1)
Important Terms	35	(1)
Questions and Problems	35	(1)
Notes	36	(1)
Web Connection	37	(1)
Frequency Distributions	38	(28)
Introduction: Ungrouped Frequency Distributions	38	(2)
Grouping Scores	40	(6)
Constructing a Frequency Distribution of Grouped Scores	41	(4)
Relative Frequency, Cumulative Frequency, and Cumulative Percentage Distributions	45	(1)
Percentiles	46	(4)
Computation of Percentile Points	47	(3)
Percentile Rank	50	(3)
Computation of Percentile Rank	50	(3)
Graphing Frequency Distributions	53	(5)
The Bar Graph	53	(2)
The Histogram	55	(1)
The Frequency Polygon	56	(1)
The Cumulative Percentage Curve	56	(1)
Shapes of Frequency Curves	57	(1)
Exploratory Data Analysis	58	(2)
Stem and Leaf Diagrams	58	(2)
What is the Truth? Stretch the Scale, Change the Tale	60	(2)
Summary	62	(1)
Important Terms	62	(1)
Questions and Problems	62	(3)
Web Connection	65	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability	66	(20)
Introduction	66	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency: Arithmetic Mean, Median, and Mode	67	(9)
The Arithmetic Mean	67	(3)
The Overall Mean	70	(2)
The Median	72	(2)
The Mode	74	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency and Symmetry	75	(1)
Measures of Variability: Range, Standard Deviation, and Variance	76	(6)
The Range	76	(1)
The Standard Deviation	76	(6)
The Variance	82	(1)
Summary	82	(1)
Important Terms	82	(1)
Questions and Problems	82	(3)
Notes	85	(1)
Web Connection	85	(1)
The Normal Curve and Standard Scores	86	(17)
Introduction	86	(1)
The Normal Curve	87	(1)
Area Contained Under the Normal Curve	88	(1)
Standard Scores (z Scores)	88	(12)
Characteristics of z Scores	91	(1)
Finding Areas Corresponding to Any Raw Score	92	(5)
Finding the Raw Score Corresponding to a Given Area	97	(3)
Summary	100	(1)
Important Terms	100	(1)
Questions and Problems	100	(2)
Web Connection	102	(1)
Correlation	103	(31)
Introduction	103	(1)
Relationships	104	(7)
Linear Relationships	104	(3)
Positive and Negative Relationships	107	(1)
Perfect and Imperfect Relationships	108	(3)
Correlation	111	(15)
The Linear Correlation Coefficient Pearson	112	(8)
Other Correlation Coefficients	120	(4)
Effect of Range on Correlation	124	(1)
Effect of Extreme Score	125	(1)
Correlation Does Not Imply Causation	125	(1)
What is the Truth? ``Good Principal = Good Elementary School,'' or Does It?	126	(1)
Summary	127	(1)
Important Terms	128	(1)
Questions and Problems	128	(5)
Web Connection	133	(1)
Linear Regression	134	(25)
Introduction	134	(1)
Prediction and Imperfect Relationships	135	(2)
Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line: Regression of Y on X	137	(6)
Regression of X on Y	143	(3)
Measuring Prediction Errors: The Standard Error of Estimate	146	(3)
Considerations in Using Linear Regression for Prediction	149	(1)
Relation Between Regression Constants and Pearson r	150	(1)
Multiple Regression and Multiple Correlation	151	(4)
Summary	155	(1)
Important Terms	156	(1)
Questions and Problems	156	(2)
Web Connection	158	(1)
part three INFERENTIAL STATISTICS	159	(330)
Random Sampling and Probability	161	(36)
Introduction	161	(1)
Random Sampling	162	(4)
Techniques for Random Sampling	164	(1)
Sampling With or Without Replacement	165	(1)
Probability	166	(23)
Some Basic Points Concerning Probability Values	167	(1)
Computing Probability	167	(1)
The Addition Rule	168	(5)
The Multiplication Rule	173	(10)
Multiplication and Addition Rules	183	(3)
Probability and Normally Distributed Continuous Variables	186	(3)
What is The Truth? ``Not Guilty, I'm a Victim of Coincidence'': Gutsy Plea or Truth?	189	(1)
What is The Truth? Sperm Count Decline--Male or Sampling Inadequacy?	190	(1)
What is The Truth? A Sample of a Sample	191	(2)
Summary	193	(1)
Important Terms	193	(1)
Questions and Problems	193	(3)
Notes	196	(1)
Web Connection	196	(1)
Binomial Distribution	197	(17)
Introduction	197	(1)
Definition and Illustration of the Binomial Distribution	197	(3)
Generating the Binomial Distribution from the Binomial Expansion	200	(2)
Using the Binomial Table	202	(9)
Summary	211	(1)
Important Terms	211	(1)
Questions and Problems	211	(2)
Notes	213	(1)
Web Connection	213	(1)
Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test	214	(29)
Introduction	214	(1)
An Experiment: Marijuana and the Treatment of AIDS Patients	215	(5)
Repeated Measures Design	217	(1)
Alternative Hypothesis (H1)	218	(1)
Null Hypothesis (H0)	218	(1)
Decision Rule (α Level)	218	(1)
Evaluating the Marijuana Experiment Using the Binomial Distribution	219	(1)
Type I and Type II Errors	220	(1)
Alpha Level and the Decision Process	221	(2)
Evaluating the Tail of the Distribution	223	(2)
One- and Two-Tailed Probability Evaluations	225	(7)
Size of Effect: Significant Versus Important	232	(1)
What is The Truth? Chance or Real Effect--1?	232	(2)
What is The Truth? Chance or Real Effect--2?	234	(1)
What is The Truth? ``No Product Is Better Than Our Product''	235	(1)
What is The Truth? Anecdotal Reports Versus Systematic Research	236	(2)
Summary	238	(1)
Important Terms	239	(1)
Questions and Problems	239	(3)
Notes	242	(1)
Web Connection	242	(1)
Power	243	(20)
Introduction	243	(1)
What Is Power?	244	(1)
Pnull and Preal	244	(2)
Preal: A Measure of the Size and Direction of the Real Effect	245	(1)
Power Analysis of the AIDS Experiment	246	(7)
Effect of N and Size of Real Effect	247	(4)
Power and Beta (β)	251	(1)
Power and Alpha (α)	252	(1)
Alpha-Beta and Reality	253	(1)
Interpreting Nonsignificant Results	253	(1)
Calculation of Power	254	(5)
What is The Truth? Astrology and Science	259	(2)
Summary	261	(1)
Important Terms	261	(1)
Questions and Problems	261	(1)
Notes	262	(1)
Web Connection	262	(1)
Sampling Distributions, Sampling Distribution of the Mean, the Normal Deviate (z) Test	263	(30)
Introduction	263	(1)
Sampling Distributions	264	(4)
Generating Sampling Distributions	264	(4)
The Normal Deviate (z) Test	268	(22)
An Experiment: Evaluating the Reading Program at the Local Public Schools	268	(1)
Sampling Distribution of the Mean	268	(7)
The Reading Proficiency Experiment Revisited	275	(2)
Alternative Solution Using zobt and the Critical Region for Rejection of H0	277	(5)
Conditions Under Which the z Test Is Appropriate	282	(1)
Power and the z Test	282	(8)
Summary	290	(1)
Important Terms	290	(1)
Questions and Problems	290	(2)
Web Connection	292	(1)
Student's t Test for Single Samples	293	(24)
Introduction	293	(1)
Comparison of the z and t Tests	294	(1)
An Experiment: Technique for Increasing Early Speaking in Children	294	(1)
The Sampling Distribution of t	295	(2)
Degrees of Freedom	296	(1)
t and z Distributions Compared	297	(1)
First Word Utterances Experiment Revisited	298	(1)
Calculating tobt from Original Scores	299	(5)
Conditions Under Which the t Test Is Appropriate	304	(1)
t Distribution: Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean	304	(5)
Construction of the 95% Confidence Interval	305	(1)
Example: Estimating the Mean IQ of Professors at a University	306	(1)
General Equations for Any Confidence Interval	307	(2)
Testing the Significance of Pearson r	309	(3)
Summary	312	(1)
Important Terms	313	(1)
Questions and Problems	313	(2)
Notes	315	(1)
Web Connection	316	(1)
Student's t Test for Correlated and Independent Groups	317	(37)
Introduction	318	(1)
Student's t Test for Correlated Groups	319	(8)
An Experiment: Brain Stimulation and Eating	319	(1)
Comparison Between the t Test for Correlated Groups and the t Test for Single Samples	320	(1)
Brain Stimulation Experiment Revisited and Analyzed	321	(5)
tTest for Correlated Groups and Sign Test Compared	326	(1)
Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Correlated Groups	327	(1)
z and t Tests for Independent Groups	327	(1)
Independent Groups Design	327	(1)
z Test for Independent Groups	328	(3)
An Experiment: Hormone X and Sexual Behavior	328	(1)
The Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Sample Means (X1 - X2)	329	(1)
An Experiment: Hormone X Experiment Revisited	330	(1)
Student's t Test for Independent Groups	331	(10)
Comparing the Equations for zobt and tobt	331	(2)
Analyzing the Hormone X Experiment with the t Test for Independent Groups	333	(1)
Calculating tobt When n1 = n2	334	(4)
Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Independent Groups	338	(1)
Violation of the Assumptions of the t Test for Independent Groups	339	(1)
Size of Effect	339	(2)
Power of the t Test	341	(1)
Correlated Groups and Independent Groups Designs Compared	342	(3)
Summary	345	(1)
Important Terms	346	(1)
Questions and Problems	347	(5)
Notes	352	(1)
Web Connection	353	(1)
Introduction to the Analysis of Variance	354	(27)
Introduction: The F Distribution	354	(2)
F Test and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)	356	(1)
Overview of the One-Way Analysis of Variance Technique	357	(5)
Within-Groups Variance Estimate, SW2	359	(1)
Between-Groups Variance Estimate, SB2	360	(2)
The F Ratio	362	(1)
Analyzing Data with the ANOVA Technique	362	(4)
An Experiment: Different Situations and Stress	362	(4)
Logic Underlying the One-Way ANOVA	366	(4)
The Relationship Between the Analysis of Variance and the t Test	370	(2)
Example: Dating---Sorority Versus Dormitory Women	370	(2)
Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance	372	(1)
Size of Effect	373	(1)
Power of the Analysis of Variance	373	(2)
Power and N	374	(1)
Power and the Real Effect of the Independent Variable	374	(1)
Power and Sample Variability	374	(1)
What is The Truth? Much Ado About Almost Nothing	375	(1)
Summary	376	(1)
Important Terms	377	(1)
Questions and Problems	377	(3)
Web Connection	380	(1)
Multiple Comparisons	381	(14)
Introduction	381	(1)
A Priori, or Planned, Comparisons	382	(2)
A Posteriori, or Post Hoc, Comparisons	384	(7)
The Tukey Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) Test	385	(1)
The Newman-Keuls Test	386	(5)
HSD and Newman-Keuls Tests with Unequal n	391	(1)
Comparison Between Planned Comparisons, Tukey's HSD, and the Newman-Keuls Tests	391	(1)
Summary	392	(1)
Important Terms	392	(1)
Questions and Problems	393	(1)
Notes	393	(1)
Web Connection	394	(1)
Introduction to Two--Way Analysis of Variance	395	(30)
Introduction to the Two-Way Analysis of Variance-Qualitative Presentation	395	(4)
Quantitative Presentation of the Two-Way Analysis of Variance	399	(7)
Within-Cells Variance Estimate (SW2)	400	(2)
Row Variance Estimate (SR2)	402	(2)
Column Variance Estimate (SC2)	404	(1)
Row X Column Variance Estimate (SRC2)	405	(1)
Computing F Ratios	406	(1)
Analyzing an Experiment with Two-Way ANOVA	406	(14)
An Experiment: Effect of Exercise on Sleep	406	(4)
Interpreting the Results	410	(10)
Multiple Comparisons	420	(1)
Assumptions Underlying the Two-Way ANOVA	421	(1)
Summary	421	(1)
Important Terms	422	(1)
Questions and Problems	422	(2)
Web Connection	424	(1)
Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests	425	(40)
Introduction: Distinction Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests	426	(1)
Chi-Square (X2)	427	(14)
Single Variable Experiments	427	(1)
An Experiment: Preference for Different Brands of Light Beer	427	(4)
Test of Independence Between Two Variables	431	(1)
An Experiment: Political Affiliation and Attitude	432	(8)
Assumptions Underlying X2	440	(1)
The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test	441	(3)
An Experiment: Promoting More Favorable Attitudes Toward Wildlife Conservation	441	(3)
Assumptions of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test	444	(1)
The Mann-Whitney U Test	444	(6)
An Experiment: The Effect of a High-Protein Diet on Intellectual Development	444	(4)
Tied Ranks	448	(2)
Assumptions Underlying the Mann-Whitney U Test	450	(1)
The Kruskal--Wallis Test	450	(5)
An Experiment: Evaluating Two Weight Reduction Programs	450	(4)
Assumptions Underlying the Kruskal-Wallis Test	454	(1)
What is the Truth? Statistics and Applied Social Research-Useful or ``Abuseful''?	455	(2)
Summary	457	(1)
Important Terms	458	(1)
Questions and Problems	458	(6)
Notes	464	(1)
Web Connection	464	(1)
Review of Inferential Statistics	465	(24)
Introduction	465	(1)
Terms and Concepts	466	(1)
Process of Hypothesis Testing	467	(1)
Single Sample Designs	468	(2)
z Test for Single Samples	468	(1)
t Test for Single Samples	469	(1)
t Test for Testing the Significance of Pearson r	469	(1)
Two-Condition Experiments: Correlated Groups Design	470	(2)
t Test for Correlated Groups	470	(1)
Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test	471	(1)
Sign Test	471	(1)
Independent Groups Design: Two Groups	472	(2)
t Test for Independent Groups	472	(1)
Mann-Whitney U Test	473	(1)
Multigroup Experiments	474	(3)
One-Way Analysis of Variance, F Test	474	(3)
One-Way Analysis of Variance, Kruskal-Wallis Test	477	(1)
Two-Way Analysis of Variance, F Test	477	(2)
Two-Way Analysis of Variance, F Test	478	(1)
Analyzing Nominal Data	479	(1)
Chi-Square Test	479	(1)
Choosing the Appropriate Test	480	(2)
Questions and Problems	482	(6)
Web Connection	488	(1)
Appendixes	489	(60)
A. Review of Prerequisite Mathematics	491	(10)
B. Equations	501	(8)
C. Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems	509	(15)
D. Tables	524	(25)
Glossary	549	(3)
Index	552