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Frank J. Landy is a consultant and researcher for the United States Department of Labor, Department of Justice, Department of State, Department of Defense, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and other agencies. Currently, as SHL Litigation Support Services CEO, Landy is working in the area of employment discrimination and human factors litigation. The Professional Practice Series is sponsored by The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc.. The series was launched in 1988 to provide industrial and organizational psychologists, organizational scientists and practitioners, human resources professionals, managers, executives, and those interested in organizational behavior and performance with volumes that are insightful, current, informative, and relevant to organizational practice.
Preface xv
PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS
1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology? 1
Module 1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 2
The Importance of Work in People’s Lives 2
The Concept of “Good Work” 2
Authenticity: A Trend of Interest to I-O Psychologists 4
What Is I-O Psychology? 4
I-O Psychology’s Contributions to Society 7
Evidence-Based I-O Psychology 8
SIOP as a Resource 9
How This Course Can Help You 10
The Importance of Understanding the Younger Worker 12
Module 1.2 The Past, Present, and Future of I-O Psychology 15
The Past: A Brief History of I-O Psychology 15
1876–1930 16
1930–1964 19
The Present: The Demographics of I-O Psychologists 22
Pathways to a Career in I-O Psychology: A Curious Mixture 23
What We Call Ourselves 23
The Future: The Challenges to I-O Psychology in the 21st Century 24
A Personal View of the Future: Preparing for a Career in I-O Psychology 25
Education and Training 25
Getting into a Graduate Program 26
Module 1.3 Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Issues in I-O Psychology 28
The Multicultural Nature of Life in the 21st Century 28
Cross-National Issues in the Workplace 30
Why Should Multiculturalism Be Important to You? 32
Why Is Multiculturalism Important for I-O Psychology? 33
Theories of Cultural Influence 34
Hofstede’s Theory 34
Other Theories of Cultural Influence 37
Module 1.4 The Organization of This Book 39
Themes 39
Parts 40
Resources 40
2 Methods and Statistics in I-O Psychology 47
Module 2.1 Science and Research 48
What Is Science? 48
The Role of Science in Society 49
Why Do I-O Psychologists Engage in Research? 50
Research Design 51
Methods of Data Collection 53
Qualitative and Quantitative Research 53
The Importance of Context in Interpreting Research 54
Generalizability and Control in Research 54
Generalizability 54
Control 56
Ethical Behavior in I-O Psychology 57
Module 2.2 Data Analysis 59
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 59
Descriptive Statistics 59
Inferential Statistics 60
Statistical Significance 61
The Concept of Statistical Power 62
Correlation and Regression 62
The Concept of Correlation 63
The Correlation Coefficient 63
Multiple Correlation 65
Correlation and Causation 65
Big Data 66
Meta-Analysis 67
Micro-, Macro-, and Meso-Research 69
Module 2.3 Interpretation 71
Reliability 71
Test–Retest Reliability 72
Equivalent Forms Reliability 72
Internal Consistency 73
Inter-Rater Reliability 73
Validity 74
Criterion-Related Validity 75
Content-Related Validity 77
Construct-Related Validity 78
PART 2 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
3 Individual Differences and Assessment 81
Module 3.1 An Introduction to Individual Differences 82
Some Background 82
Differential Psychology, Psychometrics, and I-O Psychology 83
Identifying Individual Differences 84
Varieties of Individual Differences 85
Module 3.2 Human Attributes 87
Abilities 87
Cognitive Abilities 87
Intelligence as “g” 87
Is “g” Important at Work? 88
Is “g” as Important in Other Countries as It Is in the United States? 89
Specific Cognitive Abilities Beyond “g” 89
Physical, Sensory, and Psychomotor Abilities 92
Physical Abilities 92
Sensory Abilities 93
Psychomotor Abilities 94
Personality and Work Behavior 94
The Big Five and Other Models of Personality 95
Implications of Broad Personality Models 97
Skills 99
Knowledge 99
Competencies 100
Emotional Intelligence 101
Module 3.3 Foundations of Assessment 104
The Past and the Present of Testing 104
What Is a Test? 106
What Is the Meaning of a Test Score? 106
What Is a Test Battery? 107
Where to Find Tests 107
Administrative Test Categories 108
Speed versus Power Tests 108
Group versus Individual Tests 108
Paper-and-Pencil versus Performance Tests 109
Testing and Culture 109
International Assessment Practices 111
Module 3.4 Assessment Procedures 113
Assessment Content versus Process 113
Assessment Procedures: Content 113
Cognitive Ability Tests 113
Knowledge Tests 115
Tests of Physical Abilities 115
Psychomotor Abilities 116
Personality 117
Practical Issues Associated with Personality Measures 117
Integrity Testing 120
Emotional Intelligence 122
Individual Assessment 122
Interviews 123
Assessment Centers 125
Work Samples and Situational Judgment Tests 128
Work Sample Tests 128
Situational Judgment Tests 129
Module 3.5 Special Topics in Assessment 132
Incremental Validity 132
Measuring Implicit Variables at Work 133
Biographical Data 133
Grades and Letters of Recommendation 135
Minimum Qualifications 136
Controversial Assessment Practices: Graphology and the Polygraph 137
Drug and Alcohol Testing 137
Computer-Based and Internet Assessment 138
Unproctored Internet Testing 140
Mobile Assessment 140
Computer Adaptive Testing 141
4 Job Analysis and Performance 143
Module 4.1 A Basic Model of Performance 144
Campbell’s Model of Job Performance 144
Typical versus Maximum Performance 148
Criterion Deficiency and Contamination 149
Module 4.2 Extensions of the Basic Performance Model 151
Task Performance versus Organizational Citizenship Behavior 151
Causes and Correlates of OCB 153
The Dark Side of Performance: Counterproductive Work Behaviors 154
Dishonesty 155
Absenteeism 155
Sabotage 155
Causes of and Treatments for CWB 156
OCB and CWB: Two Ends of the Same Continuum? 157
Adaptive Performance 157
A Brief Recap 159
Expert Performance 159
Types of Performance Measures 160
Module 4.3 Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties and Practices 162
The Uses of Job Analysis Information 162
Job Description 162
Recruiting 162
Selection 163
Training 163
Compensation 163
Promotion/Job Assignment 163
Job Design 164
Workforce Reduction/Restructuring 165
Criterion Development 165
Performance Evaluation 166
Litigation 166
Types of Job Analysis 166
How Job Analysis Is Done 167
Work Analysis 169
Module 4.4 Job Analysis: Newer Developments 170
Electronic Performance Monitoring as Part of a Job Analysis 170
Cognitive Task Analysis 171
Personality-Based Job Analysis 172
A Summary of the Job Analysis Process 172
Computer-Based Job Analysis 173
O*NET 173
Competency Modeling 175
Module 4.5 Job Evaluation and the Law 178
Job Evaluation 178
The Concept of Comparable Worth 179
Job Analysis and Employment Litigation 180
5 Performance Measurement 183
Module 5.1 Basic Concepts in Performance Measurement 184
Uses for Performance Information 184
Relationships among Performance Measures 185
Hands-On Performance Measures 186
Electronic Performance Monitoring 187
Performance Management 189
Module 5.2 Performance Rating—Substance 192
Theories of Performance Rating 192
Focus on Performance Ratings 193
Overall Performance Ratings 193
Trait Ratings 193
Task-Based Ratings 194
Critical Incidents Methods 194
OCB and Adaptive Performance Ratings 194
Structural Characteristics of a Performance Rating Scale 195
Rating Formats 195
Graphic Ratings Scales 195
Checklists 197
Behavioral Ratings 198
Employee Comparison Methods 199
A New Variation on the Paired Comparison Method: CARS 200
Concluding Thoughts on Performance Rating Formats 201
Module 5.3 Performance Rating—Process 203
Rating Sources 203
Supervisors 203
Peers 205
Self-Ratings 205
Subordinate Ratings 206
Customer and Supplier Ratings 206
360-Degree Systems 206
Rating Distortions 207
Central Tendency Error 207
Leniency/Severity Error 207
Halo Error 207
Rater Training 208
Administrative Training 208
Psychometric Training 208
Frame-of-Reference Training 208
Reliability and Validity of Performance Ratings 209
Reliability 209
Validity 209
Module 5.4 The Social and Legal Context of Performance Evaluation 211
The Motivation to Rate 211
Goal Conflict 213
Performance Feedback 214
Destructive Criticism 214
360-Degree Feedback 215
Performance Evaluation and Culture 217
Performance Evaluation and the Law 218
Performance Evaluation and Protected Groups 221
6 Staffing Decisions 225
Module 6.1 Conceptual Issues in Staffing 226
An Introduction to the Staffing Process 226
The Impact of Staffing Practices on Firm Performance 227
Stakeholders in the Staffing Process 228
Line Managers 229
Co-Workers 229
Applicants 229
Staffing from the International Perspective 230
Module 6.2 Evaluation of Staffing Outcomes 233
Validity 233
Selection Ratios 234
Prediction Errors and Cut Scores 234
Establishing Cut Scores 236
Utility 237
Fairness 238
Module 6.3 Practical Issues in Staffing 240
A Staffing Model 240
Comprehensive Selection Systems 240
Compensatory Selection Systems 240
Combining Information 241
Statistical versus Clinical Decision Making 241
The Hurdle System of Combining Scores 241
Combining Scores by Regression (the Compensatory Approach) 243
Deselection 244
Number of Decisions to Be Made 244
Large Staffing Projects 244
Small Staffing Projects 246
21st-Century Staffing 247
Module 6.4 Legal Issues in Staffing Decisions 249
Charges of Employment Discrimination 249
Employment Discrimination outside of the United States 250
Theories of Discrimination 251
Intentional Discrimination or Adverse Treatment 251
Unintentional Discrimination or Adverse Impact 251
7 Training and Development 257
Module 7.1 Foundations of Training and Learning 258
Training, Learning, and Performance 259
Training Needs Analysis 260
The Learning Process in Training 262
Trainee Characteristics 262
Learning and Motivational Theories Applied to Training 264
Principles of Learning 267
Learning Organizations 269
Module 7.2 Content and Methods of Training 272
Training Methods 272
On-Site Training Methods 272
Off-Site Training Methods 274
Distance Learning and Computer-Based Training 275
Training “Critical Thinking” 276
Transfer of Training 277
Module 7.3 Evaluating Training Programs 280
Training Evaluation 280
Training Criteria 280
Utility Analysis 282
Training Evaluation Designs 282
Equal Employment Opportunity Issues in Training 284
Module 7.4 Specialized Training Programs 286
Management and Leadership Development 286
Assessment Centers 286
360-Degree Feedback 287
Coaching 288
Informal Training 289
Sexual Harassment Awareness Training 290
Ethics Training 291
Cross-Cultural Training 292
PART 3 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
8 The Motivation to Work 297
Module 8.1 An Introduction to Motivation 298
The Central Position of Motivation in Psychology 298
A Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology 299
Metaphors for Motivation 300
Person as Machine 301
Person as Scientist 301
The Meaning and Importance of Motivation in the Workplace 302
Motivation and Performance 302
Motivation and Work–Life Balance 303
Motivation and Personality 304
Module 8.2 Motivational Theories—Classic Approaches 306
Person-as-Machine Theories 306
An Internal Mechanical Theory: Maslow’s Need Theory 306
An External Mechanical Theory: Reinforcement Theory 307
Person-as-Scientist Theories 309
Vroom’s VIE Theory 309
Equity Theory 310
Module 8.3 Modern Approaches to Work Motivation 313
Person-as-Intentional Approaches 313
Goal-Setting Theory 313
Control Theories and the Concept of Self-Regulation 316
The Concept of Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory 317
Common Themes in Modern Motivation Approaches 318
A New Motivational Topic: The Entrepreneur 319
Module 8.4 Practical Issues in Motivation 323
Can Motivation Be Measured? 323
Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation 324
Generational Differences and Work Motivation 325
Motivational Interventions 328
Contingent Rewards 328
ProMES 329
9 Attitudes, Emotions, and Work 333
Module 9.1 Work Attitudes 334
The Experience of Emotion at Work 334
Job Satisfaction: Some History 335
The Early Period of Job Satisfaction Research 335
Antecedents and Consequences of Job Satisfaction 336
The Measurement of Job Satisfaction 340
Overall versus Facet Satisfaction 340
Satisfaction Questionnaires 341
The Concept of Commitment 343
Forms of Commitment 343
Organizational Identification 345
Employee Engagement 348
Module 9.2 Moods, Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior 350
Is Everybody Happy? Does It Matter If They Are? 350
Satisfaction versus Mood versus Emotion 350
Dispositions and Affectivity 352
The Time Course of Emotional Experience 353
Genetics and Job Satisfaction 355
The Concept of Core Self-Evaluations 355
Withdrawal Behaviors 357
Module 9.3 Special Topics Related to Attitudes and Emotions 359
Job Loss 359
Telecommuting 361
Work–Family Balance 363
Psychological Contracts 365
Work-Related Attitudes and Emotions
from a Cross-Cultural
Perspective 366
10 Stress and Worker Well-Being 369
Module 10.1 The Problem of Stress 370
Studying Workplace Stress 370
What Is a Stressor? 372
Common Stressors at Work 373
Physical/Task Stressors 373
Psychological Stressors 374
Consequences of Stress 378
Behavioral Consequences of Stress 378
Psychological Consequences of Stress 380
Physiological Consequences of Stress 381
Work Schedules 382
Shift Work 382
Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules 383
Module 10.2 Theories of Stress 387
Demand–Control Model 387
Person–Environment Fit Model 388
Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress 389
The Type A Behavior Pattern 391
Module 10.3 Reducing and Managing Stress 395
Primary Prevention Strategies 395
Work and Job Design 396
Secondary Prevention Strategies 397
Stress Management Training 397
Relaxation and Biofeedback Techniques 398
Social Support 399
Tertiary Prevention Strategies 399
Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies 400
Module 10.4 Violence at Work 402
Stress and Workplace Violence 402
The “Typical” Violent Worker 403
Theories of Workplace Violence 404
Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis 404
The Justice Hypothesis 406
A Special Type of Violence: Bullying 408
What Can We Conclude about
Workplace Violence? 410
11 Fairness, Justice, and Diversity in the Workplace 413
Module 11.1 Justice and Fairness 414
The Concept of Justice 414
Justice, Fairness, and Trust 415
Approaches to Organizational Justice 417
Distributive Justice 417
Procedural Justice 419
Interactional Justice 421
Justice versus Injustice 422
Module 11.2 The Practical Implications of Justice Perceptions 424
Performance Evaluation 425
Applicant Reactions to Selection Procedures 426
Affirmative Action 429
Culture and Affirmative Action Programs 431
Module 11.3 Diversity 433
What Does Diversity Mean? 433
The Dynamics of Diversity 434
Group and Multicultural Diversity 436
Managing Diversity from the Organizational Perspective 437
Leadership and Diversity 440
12 Leadership 441
Module 12.1 The Concept of Leadership 442
Some Conceptual Distinctions 442
Leader Emergence versus Leadership Effectiveness 442
Leader Emergence 443
The Problem of Defining Leadership Outcomes 444
Negative Leadership Outcomes: The Destructive Leader 445
Tyrannical 445
Derailed 445
Supportive-Disloyal 445
Leader versus Manager or Supervisor 446
The Blending of Managerial and Leadership Roles 447
Leader Development versus Leadership Development 449
The Motivation to Lead 450
Module 12.2 Traditional Theories of Leadership 453
The “Great Man” Theories 453
The Trait Approach 454
The Power Approach to Leadership 454
The Behavioral Approach 455
The Ohio State University Studies 455
The University of Michigan Studies 456
The Contingency Approach 457
The Consequences of Participation: The Vroom–Yetton Model 457
Module 12.3 New Approaches to Leadership 460
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) 460
Transformational Leadership 462
Authentic Leadership 465
The Charismatic Leader 466
Module 12.4 Emerging Topics and Challenges in Leadership Research 469
Leadership in a Changing Workplace 469
Knowledge-Oriented Organizations 469
Teams/Groups 469
Telecommuting 470
Temporary Workers 470
Fuzzy Job Boundaries 471
Male and Female Leaders: Are They Different? 471
The Demographics of Leadership 471
The Leadership Styles of Men and Women 473
Personality and Leadership 475
Leadership and Neuroscience 476
Cross-Cultural Studies of Leadership 477
Leadership in a Diverse Environment 479
Guidelines for Effective Leadership 480
13 Teams in Organizations 483
Module 13.1 Types of Teams 484
Groups and Teams: Definitions 485
Types of Teams 485
Quality Circles 486
Project Teams 487
Production Teams 487
Virtual Teams 488
Module 13.2 Input–Process–Output Model of Team Effectiveness 492
Team Inputs 493
Organizational Context 493
Team Task 493
Team Composition 494
Team Diversity 495
Team Processes 496
Norms 496
Communication and Coordination 497
Cohesion 498
Decision Making 499
Team Outputs 500
Module 13.3 Special Issues in Teams 503
Team Appraisal and Feedback 503
ProMES 504
Team Roles 505
Team Development 506
Team Training 506
Cultural Issues in Teams 507
14 Organizational Theory, Dynamics, and Change 511
Module 14.1 Conceptual and Theoretical Foundations of Organizations 512
Organizations and People 512
Organization as Integration 515
Theories of Organization 516
Classic Organizational Theory 516
Human Relations Theory 517
Contingency Theories 519
Systems Theory 521
Module 14.2 Social Dynamics of Organizations 524
Climate and Culture 524
A Brief History of Climate and Culture 525
Climate and Culture from the Multicultural Perspective 526
When Cultures Clash 527
An Application of Culture and Climate: Safety 528
Socialization and the Concept of Person–Organization (P–O) and Person–Job (P–J) Fit 530
Organizational Socialization 530
Positive Consequences of Socialization 533
Socialization and National Culture 534
Models of Socialization and Person– Organization Fit 535
Module 14.3 Organizational Development and Change 539
Organizational Change 539
Episodic Change 540
Continuous Change 541
Resistance to Change 542
Examples of Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives 543
Total Quality Management 544
Six Sigma Systems 545
Lean Production Manufacturing 545
Emerging Commonalities among Organizational Interventions 547
Glossary G-1
References* R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-16
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